These authors contributed equally to this work.Two dimensional (2D) materials such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) are promising for optical modulation, detection, and light emission since their material properties can be tuned on-demand via electrostatic doping 1-18 . The optical properties of TMDs have been shown to change drastically with doping in the wavelength range near the excitonic resonances [19][20][21][22] . However, little is known about the effect of doping on the optical properties of TMDs away from these resonances, where the material is transparent and therefore could be leveraged in photonic circuits. Here, we probe the electro-optic response of monolayer TMDs at near infrared (NIR) wavelengths (i.e. deep in the transparency regime), by integrating them on silicon nitride (SiN) photonic structures to induce strong light -matter interaction with the monolayer. We dope the monolayer to carrier densities of (7.2 ± 0.8) × 10 13 cm -2 , by electrically gating the TMD using an ionic liquid [P14 + ] [FAP -]. We show strong electro-refractive response in monolayer tungsten disulphide (WS2) at NIR wavelengths by measuring a large change in the real part of refractive index ∆n = 0.53, with only a minimal change in the imaginary part ∆k = 0.004. The doping induced phase change (∆n), compared to the induced absorption (∆k) measured for WS2 (∆n/∆k ∼ 125), a key metric for photonics, is an order of magnitude higher than the ∆n/∆k for bulk materials like silicon (∆n/∆k ∼ 10) 23 , making it ideal for various photonic applications 24-28 . We further utilize this strong tunable effect to demonstrate an electrostatically gated SiN-WS2 phase modulator using a WS2-HfO2 (Hafnia)-ITO (Indium Tin Oxide) capacitive configuration, that achieves a phase modulation efficiency (V π L) of 0.8 V · cm with a RC limited bandwidth of 0.3 GHz.
An on-chip tunable photonic delay line is a key building block for applications including sensing, imaging, and optical communication. However, achieving long and tunable delay lines within a small footprint remains challenging. Here, we demonstrate an on-chip tunable photonic delay line using ultralow loss high confinement Si3N4 waveguides with integrated microheaters. As an example of potential application, we embed a 0.4 m delay line within an optical coherence tomography (OCT) system. We show that the delay line can extend the OCT imaging range by 0.6 mm while maintaining a high signal to noise ratio. Our tunable photonic delay line is achieved without any moving parts which could provide high stability, critical for interference based applications.
Piezoelectric technology is the backbone of most medical ultrasound imaging arrays; however, signal transduction efficiency severely deteriorates in scaling the technology to element size smaller than 0.1 mm, often required for high-frequency operation (>20 MHz). Optical sensing and generation of ultrasound has been proposed and studied as an alternative technology for implementing sub-millimeter size arrays with element size down to 10 μm. The application of thin polymer film Fabry-Perot resonators has been demonstrated for high-frequency ultrasound detection; however, their sensitivity is limited by light diffraction loss. Here, we introduce a new method to increase the sensitivity of an optical ultrasound receiver by utilizing a waveguide between the mirrors of the Fabry-Perot resonator. This approach eliminates diffraction loss from the cavity, and therefore the finesse is only limited by mirror loss and absorption. By applying this method, we have achieved noise equivalent pressure of 178 Pa over a bandwidth of 30 MHz or 0.03 Pa/Hz1/2, which is about 20-fold better than a similar device without a waveguide. The finesse of the tested Fabry-Perot resonator was around 200. This result is 5 times higher than the finesse measured in the same device outside the waveguide region.
The sensitivity and reliability of piezoelectric ultrasound transducers severely degrade in applications requiring high frequency and small element size. Alternative technologies such as capacitive micromachined ultrasound transducers (CMUT) and optical sensing and generation of ultrasound have been proposed and studied for several decades. In this paper, we present a new type of device based on optical micromachined ultrasound transducer (OMUT) technology. OMUTs rely on microfabrication techniques to construct micrometerscale air cavities capped by an elastic membrane. A modified photoresist bonding process has been developed to facilitate the fabrication of these devices. We will describe the design, fabrication, and testing of prototype OMUT devices which implement a receive-only function. Future design modifications are proposed for incorporating complete transmit¿receive functionality in a single element.
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