Cardiolipin (CL) is a unique phospholipid which is present throughout the eukaryotic kingdom and is localized in mitochondrial membranes. Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells containing a disruption of CRD1, the structural gene encoding CL synthase, have no CL in mitochondrial membranes. To elucidate the physiological role of CL, we compared mitochondrial functions in the crd1⌬ mutant and isogenic wild type. The crd1⌬ mutant loses viability at elevated temperature, and prolonged culture at 37°C leads to loss of the mitochondrial genome. Mutant membranes have increased phosphatidylglycerol (PG) when grown in a nonfermentable carbon source but have almost no detectable PG in medium containing glucose. In glucose-grown cells, maximum respiratory rate, ATPase and cytochrome oxidase activities, and protein import are deficient in the mutant. The ADP/ATP carrier is defective even during growth in a nonfermentable carbon source. The mitochondrial membrane potential is decreased in mutant cells. The decrease is more pronounced in glucose-grown cells, which lack PG, but is also apparent in membranes containing PG (i.e. in nonfermentable carbon sources). We propose that CL is required for maintaining the mitochondrial membrane potential and that reduced membrane potential in the absence of CL leads to defects in protein import and other mitochondrial functions.1 is a structurally unique phospholipid that carries four acyl groups and two negative charges. It is thus highly hydrophobic and acidic. The biosynthesis of CL occurs in three enzymatic steps (1-3). Phosphatidylglycerolphosphate (PGP) synthase catalyzes the formation of PGP from phosphatidyl-CMP (CDP-diacylglycerol; CDP-DG) and glycerol 3-phosphate. PGP is then dephosphorylated to phosphatidylglycerol (PG) by PGP phosphatase. Eukaryotes and bacteria utilize different reactions to convert PG to CL. In prokaryotes, CL synthase catalyzes a phosphatidyl transfer between two PG molecules (4). This is a near-equilibrium (transesterification) reaction that is mainly controlled by substrate availability. In contrast, eukaryotic CL synthase catalyzes a phosphatidyl transfer from CDP-DG to PG (5-7). This is an irreversible reaction that involves cleavage of a high energy anhydride bond. This reaction can take place in the presence of low substrate concentration and is mainly regulated by CL synthase activity. The differences in these reactions probably reflect different functions of PG and CL in prokaryotes and mitochondria.In Escherichia coli, the enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of CL have been characterized biochemically, and the genes encoding these enzymes have been cloned. Although disruption of the cls gene (encoding CL synthase) is not lethal, bacterial strains bearing a null allele of pgsA (encoding PGP synthase) are inviable (8, 9). Interestingly, bacterial cls null mutants do synthesize CL, presumably by another enzyme. These experiments suggest that the anionic phospholipids PG and/or CL are essential for bacterial viability.

We have cloned and characterized a new member of the p38 group of mitogen-activated protein kinases here termed p38␦. Sequence comparisons revealed that p38␦ is approximately 60% identical to the other three p38 isoforms but only 40 -45% to the other mitogen-activated protein kinase family members. It contains the TGY dual phosphorylation site present in all p38 group members and is activated by a group of extracellular stimuli including cytokines and environmental stresses that also activate the other three known p38 isoforms. However, unlike the other p38 isoforms, the kinase activity of p38␦ is not blocked by the pyridinyl imidazole, 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-2(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)-imidazole (identicalto SB202190). p38␦ can be activated by MKK3 and MKK6, known activators of the other isoforms. Nonetheless, in-gel kinase assays provide evidence for additional activators. The data presented herein show that p38␦ has many properties that are similar to those of other p38 group members. Nonetheless important differences exist among the four members of the p38 group of enzymes, and thus each may have highly specific, individual contributions to biologic events involving activation of the p38 pathways.

Members of the MEF2 family of transcription factors bind as homo-and heterodimers to the MEF2 site found in the promoter regions of numerous muscle-specific, growth-or stress-induced genes. We showed previously that the transactivation activity of MEF2C is stimulated by p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase. In this study, we examined the potential role of the p38 MAP kinase pathway in regulating the other MEF2 family members. We found that MEF2A, but not MEF2B or MEF2D, is a substrate for p38. Among the four p38 group members, p38 is the most potent kinase for MEF2A. Threonines 312 and 319 within the transcription activation domain of MEF2A are the regulatory sites phosphorylated by p38. Phosphorylation of MEF2A in a MEF2A-MEF2D heterodimer enhances MEF2-dependent gene expression. These results demonstrate that the MAP kinase signaling pathway can discriminate between different MEF2 isoforms and can regulate MEF2-dependent genes through posttranslational activation of preexisting MEF2 protein.The transactivation activity of many transcription factors is regulated by phosphorylation (2). The mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase family of serine/threonine kinases has been shown to play important roles in regulating gene expression via transcription factor phosphorylation (5,10,16,38,40,42). Unique structural features, specific activation pathways, and different substrate specificities provide evidence to support the contention that different MAP kinases are independently regulated and control different cellular responses to extracellular stimuli (7,38,40,44).p38 MAP kinase was first identified in studies designed to explore how bacterial endotoxin induces cytokine expression (11,13,23). Following the initial description of p38 (p38␣), three additional isoforms of this MAP kinase group have been cloned and characterized: p38␤ (18), p38␥ (also termed ERK6 or SAPK3) (22,24,30), and p38␦ (also termed SAPK4) (4, 17, 41). p38␣ and p38␤ are sensitive to pyridinyl imidazole derivatives, whereas p38␥ and p38␦ are not (4). In mammalian cells, these closely related p38 isoforms are activated coordinately by a broad panel of stimuli which include physical-chemical stresses and proinflammatory cytokines (17, 36). Two MAP kinase kinases (MKK), MKK3 and MKK6, are the upstream activators of the p38 group MAP kinases (6,12,14,37). Several proteins including transcription factors such as CHOP 10 (GADD153) (42), Sap1 (16), MEF2C (10), enzymes such as cPLA2 (20), and the protein kinases MAPKAPK2/3 (27, 29, 39), MNK1/2 (8, 45), and p38-regulated/activated protein kinase (33) have been shown by us and others to be substrates of p38.We showed that MEF2C, a member of the MEF2 family of transcription factors, is phosphorylated by p38 and that this event regulates the transactivation activity of MEF2C (10). Our studies showed that p38 specifically phosphorylates serine 387 and threonines 293 and 300 within the MEF2C transactivation domain (10). MEF2C phosphorylation by p38 was shown to play an important role in regulation of c-Jun ...

L.New and Y.Jiang contributed equally to this workWe have identified and cloned a novel serine/ threonine kinase, p38-regulated/activated protein kinase (PRAK). PRAK is a 471 amino acid protein with 20-30% sequence identity to the known MAP kinase-regulated protein kinases RSK1/2/3, MNK1/2 and MAPKAP-K2/3. PRAK was found to be expressed in all human tissues and cell lines examined. In HeLa cells, PRAK was activated in response to cellular stress and proinflammatory cytokines. PRAK activity was regulated by p38α and p38β both in vitro and in vivo and Thr182 was shown to be the regulatory phosphorylation site. Activated PRAK in turn phosphorylated small heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) at the physiologically relevant sites. An in-gel kinase assay demonstrated that PRAK is a major stress-activated kinase that can phosphorylate small heat shock protein, suggesting a potential role for PRAK in mediating stress-induced HSP27 phosphorylation in vivo.

The C2 domain of synaptotagmin I, which binds to anionic phospholipids in cell membranes, was shown to bind to the plasma membrane of apoptotic cells by both flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Conjugation of the protein to superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles allowed detection of this binding using magnetic resonance imaging. Detection of apoptotic cells, using this novel contrast agent, was demonstrated both in vitro, with isolated apoptotic tumor cells, and in vivo, in a tumor treated with chemotherapeutic drugs.

Reduced capacity to produce ROS increases the severity of T cell-dependent arthritis in both mice and rats with polymorphisms in neutrophil cytosolic factor 1 (Ncf1) (p47phox). Since T cells cannot exert oxidative burst, we hypothesized that T cell responsiveness is downregulated by ROS produced by APCs. Macrophages have the highest burst capacity among APCs, so to study the effect of macrophage ROS on T cell activation, we developed transgenic mice expressing functional Ncf1 restricted to macrophages. Macrophage-restricted expression of functional Ncf1 restored arthritis resistance to the level of that of wild-type mice in a collagen-induced arthritis model but not in a T cell-independent anti-collagen antibody-induced arthritis model. T cell activation was downregulated and skewed toward Th2 in transgenic mice. In vitro, IL-2 production and T cell proliferation were suppressed by macrophage ROS, irrespective of T cell origin. IFN-gamma production, however, was independent of macrophage ROS but dependent on T cell origin. These effects were antigen dependent but not restricted to collagen type II. In conclusion, macrophage-derived ROS play a role in T cell selection, maturation, and differentiation, and also a suppressive role in T cell activation, and thereby mediate protection against autoimmune diseases like arthritis.

The p38 group of kinases belongs to the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase superfamily with structural and functional characteristics distinguishable from those of the ERK, JNK (SAPK), and BMK (ERK5) kinases. Although there is a high degree of similarity among members of the p38 group in terms of structure and activation, each member appears to have a unique function. Here we show that activation of p38␥ (also known as ERK6 or SAPK3), but not the other p38 isoforms, is required for ␥-irradiation-induced G 2 arrest. Activation of the MKK6-p38␥ cascade is sufficient to induce G 2 arrest in cells, and expression of dominant negative alleles of MKK6 or p38␥ allows cells to escape the DNA damage-induce G 2 delay. Activation of p38␥ is dependent on ATM and leads to activation of Cds1 (also known as Chk2). These data suggest a model in which activation of ATM by ␥ irradiation leads to the activation of MKK6, p38␥, and Cds1 and that activation of both MKK6 and p38␥ is essential for the proper regulation of the G 2 checkpoint in mammalian cells.

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