This study investigated the suppression of photoaging by galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS) ingestion following exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. To investigate its photoprotective effects, GOS along with collagen tripeptide (CTP) as a positive control was orally administered to hairless mice under UVB exposure for 8 weeks. The water holding capacity, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), and wrinkle parameters were measured. Additionally, quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting were used to determine mRNA expression and protein levels, respectively. The GOS or CTP orally-administered group showed a decreased water holding capacity and increased TEWL compared to those of the control group, which was exposed to UVB (CON) only. In addition, the wrinkle area and mean wrinkle length in the GOS and CTP groups significantly decreased. Skin aging-related genes, matrix metalloproteinase, had significantly different expression levels in the CTP and GOS groups. Additionally, the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases and collagen type I gene expression in the CTP and GOS groups significantly increased. Oral administration of GOS and CTP significantly lowered the tissue cytokine (interleukin-6 and -12, and tumor necrosis factor-α) levels. There was a significant difference in UVB-induced phosphorylation of JNK, p38, and ERK between the GOS group and the CON group. Our findings indicate that GOS intake can suppress skin damage caused by UV light and has a UV photoprotective effect.

Various mixtures were prepared depending on the mixing ratio of Scutellaria baicalensis hot water extract (SB-HW), and Chrysanthemum morifolium ethanol extract (CM-E) and their anti-inflammatory activity were compared. Among them, SB-HW (80 μg/mL)/CM-E (120 μg/mL) or SB-HW (40 μg/mL)/CM-E (160 μg/mL) significantly inhibited LPS-stimulated NO and IL-6 levels in RAW 264.7 cells. The SB-HW (80 μg/mL)/CM-E (120 μg/mL) mixture, which was determined as active mixture, significantly reduced MUC5AC secretion in PMA and LPS-induced NCI-H292 cells. The active mixture also reduced the production of PGE2 and IL-8 in PMA-induced A549 cells. LC-MS/MS analysis showed that the active mixture was composed of high contents of flavone glycosides, such as baicalin and cynaroside. Western blot analysis indicated that the active mixture suppressed phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38, associating with the inhibition of MAPK signaling. Taken together, our results suggest that the active mixture could be applied as a new anti-inflammatory herbal medicine. Abbreviations JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinases; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CM: Chrysanthemum morifolium; COX-2: cyclooxygenase-2; ERK: extracellular-signal-regulated kinase; IL-6: interleukin-6; IL-8: interleukin-8; IL-12: interleukin-12; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; NO: nitric oxide; NK- κB: nuclear factor kappa B; p38: p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases; PBS: phosphate buffered saline; PMA: phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate; SB: Scutellaria baicalensis; PGE2: prostaglandin E2; TBST: Tris-buffered saline containing 0.1% Tween 20; TIC: total ion chromatogram; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha

To investigate the effects of ingestion of galactooligosaccharide (GOS) on skin pigmentation, we conducted cell experiments and clinical trials. The effect of GOS on melanin accumulation was assessed in vitro using B16F10 cells. Moreover, melanin and erythema indexes following GOS consumption were explored during a double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled study, which included subjects divided by stratified block randomization to placebo or GOS. No cytotoxicity was observed at 70 mg/mL or lower GOS in B16F10 melanoma cells. Melanin accumulation was inhibited at 14 mg/mL or higher GOS. Upon ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation, the survival of HaCaT cells (control) was reduced to 69.0% lower than baseline. A protective effect of GOS was observed upon treatment with 14~35 mg/mL GOS; however at 70 mg/mL, cells showed 64% viability compared to control cells irradiated with UVB. Delta values (Δ melanin index), which indicate the difference from the baseline melanin level, were significantly different to placebo (P<0.01) after 8 weeks. In the GOS group, delta values (Δ erythema index), which indicate the difference from baseline erythema level, also significantly differed from the placebo group (P<0.05) after 8 weeks. Our results suggest that intake of prebiotic GOS inhibits skin pigmentation and may represent a novel nutritional approach for skin care.

Medicinal mushrooms are an important natural resource promoting health benefits. Herein, Phellinus linteus mycelia were prepared under submerged cultivation, the mycelium-containing culture broth was extracted as a whole to obtain the postbiotic materials (PLME), and its effect on the immune system was evaluated in normal C3H/HeN mice. Oral administration of PLME for 4 weeks was well tolerated and safe. In the PLME-administered groups, in addition to the production of immunostimulatory cytokines, such as interferon gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin 6 (IL-6), the mitogenic activity was significantly increased. PLME administration also significantly increased the levels of serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgA in the small intestinal fluid and Peyer’s patches and enhanced Peyer’s patch-mediated bone marrow cell proliferation activity and cytokine production (IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ). Histomorphometric analyses showed an increase in immune cells in the spleen and small intestinal tissues of mice administered PLME, supporting the rationale for its immune system activation. PLME mainly contained neutral sugar (969.1 mg/g), comprising primarily of glucose as a monosaccharide unit. The β-glucan content was 88.5 mg/g. Data suggest that PLME effectively promote immune function by stimulating the systemic immune system through the spleen and intestinal immune tissues. PLME can thus be developed as a functional ingredient to enhance immune functions.

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