The phylogeography of species associated with European steppes and extrazonal xeric grasslands is poorly understood. This paper summarizes the results of recent studies on the phylogeography and conservation genetics of animals (20 taxa of beetles, butterflies, reptiles and rodents) and flowering plants (18 taxa) of such, ''steppic'' habitats in Eastern Central Europe. Most species show a similar phylogeographic pattern: relatively high genetic similarity within regional groups of populations and moderate-to-high genetic distinctiveness of populations from currently isolated regions located in the studied area. This distinctiveness of populations suggests a survival here during glacial maxima, including areas north of the Bohemian Massif-Carpathians arc. Steppic species generally do not follow the paradigmatic patterns known for temperate biota (south-north ''contraction-expansion''), but to some extent are similar to those of arctic-alpine taxa. There are three main groups of taxa within Eastern Central Europe that differ in their contemporary distribution pattern, which may reflect historical origin and expansion routes. Present diversity patterns of the studied steppic species suggest that they share a unique genetic signature and distinct assemblages exist in each of the now isolated areas rich in steppic habitats. At least some of these areas probably act as present ''interglacial refugia'' for steppic species. This study strongly supports the need to protect steppic species throughout their entire ranges in the region, as the continuous destruction of steppic habitats in some areas may lead not only to the disappearance of local populations, but also to the extinction of unique evolutionary units.

Bacterial communities play a crucial role in the biology, ecology, and evolution of multicellular organisms. In this research, the microbiome of 24 selected beetle species representing five families (Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Curculionidae, Chrysomelidae, Scarabaeidae) and three trophic guilds (carnivorous, herbivorous, detrivorous) was examined using 16S rDNA sequencing on the Illumina platform. The aim of the study was to compare diversity within and among species on various levels of organization, including evaluation of the impact of endosymbiotic bacteria. Collected data showed that beetles possess various bacterial communities and that microbiota of individuals of particular species hosts are intermixed. The most diverse microbiota were found in Carabidae and Scarabaeidae; the least diverse, in Staphylinidae. On higher organization levels, the diversity of bacteria was more dissimilar between families, while the most distinct with respect to their microbiomes were trophic guilds. Moreover, eight taxa of endosymbiotic bacteria were detected including common genera such as Wolbachia, Rickettsia, and Spiroplasma, as well as the rarely detected Cardinium, Arsenophonus, Buchnera, Sulcia, Regiella, and Serratia. There were no correlations among the abundance of the most common Wolbachia and Rickettsia; a finding that does not support the hypothesis that these bacteria occur interchangeably. The abundance of endosymbionts only weakly and negatively correlates with diversity of the whole microbiome in beetles. Overall, microbiome diversity was found to be more dependent on host phylogeny than on the abundance of endosymbionts. This is the first study in which bacteria diversity is compared between numerous species of beetles in a standardized manner.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1007/s00248-019-01358-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Most parthenogenetic weevil species are postulated to have originated via hybridization, but Wolbachia has also been speculated to play a role via the induction of parthenogenesis. Here, we examine the molecular diversity of Wolbachia and parthenogenetic host genomes. The host species studied here, Eusomus ovulum, is known to be exclusively parthenogenetic and triploid. The E. ovulum populations that we examined had a low genetic diversity of mitochondrial (cytochrome oxidase I gene) and nuclear markers (internal transcribed spacer 2 and elongation factor 1-α gene), and they all were infected by only single bacteria strains (genotyped for five genes according to the multilocus sequence typing system). We found significant signs of linkage disequilibrium and a lack of recombination amongst all of the examined genomes (bacteria and host), which strongly indicates a selective sweep. The lack of heterozygosity in host nuclear genes, missing bisexual populations and selective sweep between the parthenogenetic host and bacteria genomes suggest that parthenogenesis in this species could have originated as a result of infection rather than hybridization. However, the finding that highly similar Wolbachia strains are also present in other parthenogenetic weevils from the same habitat suggests the opposite scenario: bacteria may have infected the already parthenogenetic lineage and taken advantage of the host's unisexual reproduction.

Abstract. Intracellular bacteria of the genus Wolbachia (α-Proteobacteria) are the most widespread endosymbionts of insects. Host infection is usually associated with alterations in reproduction, such as cytoplasmic incompatibility, the induction of parthenogenesis and offspring sex ratio bias: all phenomena that may infl uence host speciation. In the present study, by using wellestablished molecular tools, we investigated the presence of Wolbachia in leaf beetles of the genus Crioceris and their host plants, which are various species of Asparagus. Multilocus sequence typing of bacterial genes showed that despite their occurrence in the same habitat and feeding on the same plant, two species of Crioceris, C. quinquepunctata and C. quatuordecimpunctata, are infected by two different strains of Wolbachia. C. asparagi, C. paracenthesis and C. duodecimpunctata, which are sympatric with the infected species, do not harbour the bacterium. Interestingly, DNA of Wolbachia was detected in host plant tissues that are exploited by the beetles, providing evidence for the horizontal transmission of the bacterium between beetles and their host plants. Moreover, Wolbachia was detected in species of Crioceris that are not closely related.

Xerothermic species are rare and threatened in central and eastern Europe. In light of the continuing loss of steppe-like habitats due to anthropogenic fragmentation and degradation, the evaluation of genetic variation in populations inhabiting them is of immediate importance if appropriate conservation measures are to be undertaken. Here we report on the genetic diversity of the rare leaf beetle Crioceris quatuordecimpunctata, whose populations in central and eastern Europe inhabit highly geographically isolated areas. All of the studied populations (in Poland, Ukraine, and Slovakia) were differentiated at the mitochondrial marker COI. However, with respect to the nuclear marker ITS1, Polish populations were monomorphic, but distinct from all other populations. The distinctiveness of the studied populations was confirmed by Wolbachia screening, which showed that all populations carried different strains (one or two), which were probably transferred independently from other insects. On the other hand, no diversity was found in any marker within particular populations, which could be caused (at least for mtDNA) by a Wolbachia selective sweep. Crioceris quatuordecimpunctata probably consists of isolated populations, which went through narrow bottlenecks leading to a drastic reduction in their genetic diversity. As these populations are reciprocally monophyletic for mtDNA haplotypes and show a significant divergence of allele frequencies at nuclear loci, they could be classified as evolutionarily significant units (ESUs). In addition, DNA barcodes were used to identify Asparagus officinalis as the host plant for members of all studied populations. These data should be valuable in efforts to conserve populations of C. quatuordecimpunctata (e.g., for guiding reintroductions).

Steppe-like habitats in Europe are seriously threatened as a result of fragmentation and anthropogenic degradation, at least in western and central parts. Considering the dramatic loss of steppe-like habitats, the evaluation of genetic variation in populations of steppe species is of immediate importance if appropriate conservation measures are to be undertaken. In this paper, we examine the genetic diversity of the highly endangered populations of the leaf-beetle Cheilotoma musciformis, which inhabits only a limited area in south-central Poland, which is geographically isolated from the continuous range of this species. Both mitochondrial and nuclear markers show that the Polish populations are distinct from Slovakian and Ukrainian ones. These regional populations should be considered independent conservation units. On the other hand, very little (mtDNA) or no (nuclear DNA) diversity has been found among the Polish subpopulations. This leads to the conclusion that this species has gone through a strong bottleneck leading to a drastic reduction in its genetic diversity prior to the establishment of present-day populations. Host plants have been identified for this species using barcodes, and the only hosts for the Polish and Ukrainian samples are sainfoins Onobrychis spp. while for the Slovakian sample it is either Dorycnium pentaphyllum or Lotus spp. (all Fabaceae). All of these data can be very valuable for the conservation of C. musciformis populations (e.g. for reintroductions).

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Knowledge of Wolbachia prevalence with respect to its hosts is restricted mainly to taxonomic/phylogenetic context. In contrast, relations between infection and most host’s ecological and biological traits are poorly understood. This study aimed to elaborate on relations between bacteria and its beetle hosts in taxonomic and the ecological contexts. In particular, the goal is to verify which ecological and biological traits of beetles could cause them to be prone to be infected. Verification of Wolbachia infection status across 297 beetle taxa showed that approximately 27% of taxa are infected by supergroups A and B. Only minor support for coevolution between bacteria and its beetle hosts was observed in some genera of beetles, but in general coevolution between beetles and Wolbachia was rejected. Some traits of beetles were found to be unrelated to Wolbachia prevalence (type of range and thermal preferences); some traits were related with ambiguous effects (habitats, distribution, mobility and body size); some were substantially related (reproduction mode and trophy). The aforementioned summary does not show obvious patterns of Wolbachia prevalence and diversity in relation to host taxonomy, biology, and ecology. As both Wolbachia and Coleoptera are diverse groups, this lack of clear patterns is probably a reflection of nature, which is characterised by highly diversified and probably unstable relations.