Recent genomic data has revealed multiple interactions between Neandertals and humans, but there is currently little genetic evidence about Neandertal behavior, diet, or health. We shotgun sequenced ancient DNA from five Neandertal dental calculus specimens to characterize regional differences in Neandertal ecology. At Spy, Belgium, Neandertal diet was heavily meat based, and included woolly rhinoceros and wild sheep-animals characteristic of a steppe environment. In El Sidrón, Spain, no meat was detected in the dental calculus, but dietary components including mushrooms, pine nuts, and moss reflected forest gathering. Differences in diet were also linked to an overall shift in the oral bacterial community (microbiota) in Neandertals, suggesting that meat consumption contributed to significant variation between Neandertal microbiota. Evidence for self-medication was identified in one El Sidrón Neandertal with a dental abscess, who also likely suffered from a chronic gastrointestinal pathogen (Enterocytozoon bieneusi). Lastly, we characterized a nearly complete genome of the archaeal commensal Methanobrevibacter oralis in Neandertals-the oldest draft microbial genome generated to date at ~48,000 years old (10.2 depth). DNA preserved within dental calculus represents an important new resource of behavioral and health information for ancient hominid specimens, as well as a unique long-term study system for microbial evolution.

Primate welfare in captivity has significantly improved over the last century, due to the advances made in providing an adequate diet and environment. The skeletal collections of museums provide evidence of this shift in captive care, because metabolic disease caused by dietary deficiency or inappropriate surroundings can cause deformation to the hard tissues. The Royal College of Surgeons of England (RCS) holds a collection of 1,507 non-human primate skulls in its Odontological Collection, the majority donated prior to the mid twentieth century from various sources. We observed a recurring gross pathology in 51 of these skulls, noted in museum records as captive animals. In all cases, general bone thickening with decreased bone density is the main feature and primarily involves the bones of the maxillofacial region and mandible. We computer tomography scanned a sub-sample of these skulls to further investigate these pathological features. We compared the RCS historical collections and a more recent captive primate collection at the National Museum of Scotland. The findings suggest that a metabolic bone disease is the causative agent, with osteomalacia the likely diagnosis. Osteomalacia typically occurs due to malnutrition and/or insufficient ultraviolet light exposure and in this case reflects the inadequacy of zoo primate management during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Developments have since been made in captive animal welfare, due to improvements in nutrition and environment. Metabolic bone disease in primate captivity can be regarded as a lesson from the past.

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the majority of public engagement with research work moving online. This shift to online engagement is likely to affect inclusivity and diversity in such events and this requires further consideration as a result of the pandemic. Through comparing case-studies both pre-dating and during the pandemic, we are able to discern areas for ongoing improvement and learning in the public engagement sphere. Main body The public engagement work of the Wellcome Centre for Ethics and Humanities has sought to include a broad discussion on its research from a range of demographics, attempting to be inclusive in the engagement work of the Centre. However such efforts have not always been successful and we reflect here on two different pre-pandemic ‘in-person’ case studies assessing public views on vaccination and medical data sharing. In contrast we compare these pre-pandemic activities to a fully online case study coordinated and completed during the pandemic. These three case studies are compared and assessed for evidence of their efficacy in a post-pandemic world. Conclusion Research and public awareness benefit when multiple views are included in engagement events. Broader demographics enrich our ways of understanding societal responses to healthcare issues such as vaccination, data sharing and social responsibility. The move to online engagement as a result of the pandemic may open opportunities to widening engagement geographically, but it could also pose a threat to inclusivity with certain public groups on a more local level. Enabling access to online engagement is key, but considerations must be made regarding the new barriers created by a solely online world and the many groups of people inadvertently excluded from this work.