A theoretical model describing the nonlinear scattering of acoustic waves by surface-breaking cracks with faces in partial contact is presented. The nonlinear properties of the crack are accounted for by suitable boundary conditions that are derived from micromechanical models of the dynamics of elastic rough surfaces in contact. Both linear and nonlinear responses of the crack are shown to be largest for a shear vertical wave incident on the surface containing the crack at an angle just above the critical angle for longitudinal waves. These findings question the fitness for the purpose of a conventional inspection method, which utilizes shear vertical waves at 45 degrees of incidence to search for surface-breaking cracks in many engineering components. For angles of incidence proximal to the critical angle of longitudinal waves, the efficiency of the second harmonic's generation appears to be the highest. Thanks to the increased sensitivity to surface-breaking cracks, this configuration seems to offer a solution to the localization problem, a task that has eluded nonlinear techniques operating under other circumstances. Finally, this model suggests a simple interpretation of the highly localized nonlinear response of delaminations in composite materials.
An experimental investigation into the linear reflection and generation of the second harmonic component following the incidence of an ultrasonic wave onto a dry or water-confining interface between elasto-plastic steel–steel surfaces in contact is presented. The results on dry interfaces show that, although the theoretical models currently used to estimate the stiffness of such interfaces constitute a valid framework, the statistics of asperities in contact requires further development to account for the effects of the elasto-plastic deformation. Similarly, the results with water-confining interfaces indicate that current models not accounting for the liquid-mediated forces between the solid surfaces cannot explain the results presented here. In fact, the experimental evidence is interpreted as suggesting that structural repulsive forces may be responsible for the observed phenomena. Finally, the level of second harmonic generation for these interfaces offers support by the development of inspection techniques which exploit such wave phenomena for the detection of partially closed and dry, or nearly open and water-trapping stress-corrosion surface-breaking cracks.
An inspection technique used to assess the structural integrity of critical components in a nuclear power plant must be able to discern surface-breaking cracks from subsurface cracks. This work proposes an ultrasonic method to provide that information and presents a theoretical investigation into it. The main assumption of the model is that water carried by pressurized pipes infiltrates and fills a surface-breaking crack, while a subsurface crack is dry. The model simulates an inspection in which the modulation technique is employed and the surface hosting the crack is not accessible. A ratio, R, constructed with signals recorded in backscattering configuration during a modulation cycle, is examined and shown to provide a clear criterion allowing subsurface cracks to be distinguished from surface-breaking cracks when a shear vertical wave at 45 degree incidence is employed as a probe.
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