Automotive Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) require varying levels of functionalities and model details at different phases of the electric vehicles (EV) development process, with a trade-off between accuracy and execution time. This article proposes a scalable modelling approach depending on the multi-objective targets between model functionalities, accuracy and execution time. In this article, four different fidelity levels of modelling approaches are described based on the model functionalities, accuracy and execution time. The highest error observed between the low fidelity (LoFi) map-based model and the high fidelity (HiFi) physics-based model is 5.04%; while, the simulation time of the LoFi model is ~10 4 times faster than corresponding one of the HiFi model. A detailed comparison of all characteristics between multi-fidelity models is demonstrated in this paper. Furthermore, a dSPACE SCALEXIO Hardwarein-the-Loop (HiL) testbench, equipped with a minimal latency of 18μsec, is used for real-time (RT) model implementation of the EV's HV DC/DC converter. The performance of the entire HiL setup is compared with the Model-in-the-Loop (MiL) setup and the highest RMSE is limited to 0.54 among the HiL and MiL results. Moreover, the accuracy (95.7%) of the passive component loss estimation is verified through the Finite Element Method (FEM) software model. Finally, the experimental results of a full-scale 30-kW SiC DC/DC converter prototype are presented to validate the accuracy and correlation between multi-fidelity models. It has been observed that the efficiency deviation between the hardware prototype and multi-fidelity models is less than 1.25% at full load. Furthermore, the SiC Interleaved Bidirectional Converter (IBC) prototype achieves a high efficiency of 98.4% at rated load condition. INDEX TERMS DC/DC interleaved converter, EV, efficiency, electro-thermal modelling, multi-fidelity models, optimization, scalable modelling, Hardware-in-the-loop, and wide-bandgap technology.
The reduced capability of multilevel converters with more than one intermediate node to balance the DC-link capacitors voltage, as well as the lack of standard modulation methods to improve their balancing performance, make these converter topologies unattractive for real power applications. This is especially true when the load demands active power. One of these topologies is the 5L-MPC (Five Level-Multi Point Clamped) converter. The Back-to-Back (B2B) configuration of two 5L-MPC converters and the use of a Space Vector Modulation (SVM) that exploits the voltage balancing capability of the redundant switching vectors extend the operation conditions range in which a proper voltage balance can be achieved. However, if practical modulation restrictions are considered (limitation of voltage steps, dead times, switching losses, etc.) the voltage balance cannot be achieved for all operation conditions. In this paper, a SVM which takes into account practical restrictions is proposed. In order to guarantee the voltage balance at any operation condition, the grid side rectifier exchanges reactive power with the grid side LCL filter. Thus, the voltage balance of the DC-link is guaranteed while a unity grid side power factor is achieved. The proposed modulation scheme and voltage balancing strategy is experimentally validated in a 6.6 kV-1.5 MW 5L-MPC B2B converter.
With the increasing demand for electric vehicles, the requirements of the market are changing ever faster. Therefore, there is a need to improve the electric car’s design time, where simulations could be an appropriate tool for this task. In this paper, the modeling and simulation of an inverter for an electric vehicle are presented. Four different modeling approaches are proposed, depending on the required simulation speed and accuracy in each case. In addition, these models can provide up to 150 different electric modeling and three different thermal modeling variants. Therefore, in total, there were 450 different electrical and thermal variants. These variants are easily selectable and usable and offer different options to calculate the electrical parameters of the inverter. Finally, the speed and accuracy of the different models were compared and the obtained results presented.
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