Since the 2008 Practice Advisory, new information has been published, furthering our understanding of the microanatomy of peripheral nerves, mechanisms of peripheral nerve injection injury, toxicity of local anesthetics, the etiology of and monitoring methods, and technologies that may decrease the risk of nerve block-related peripheral nerve injury.

EVD can be left safely, as long as needed, provided that meticulous care is taken for EVD insertion and nursing. EVD duration seems to have no effect on infection incidence.

The cords of the brachial plexus are clustered together lateral to the axillary artery, and share a consistent relation relative to one another and to the axillary artery, at the CCS.

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Our findings suggest that intraneural needle insertion may more commonly result in interfascicular rather than intrafascicular needle placement.

The ultrastructural anatomy of the human pia mater, such as pial cells, membrane thickness, and subpial tissue at different levels of the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord and nerve roots, was studied by special staining techniques, immunohistochemistry, and transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Fenestrations were found in samples at the thoracic-lumbar junction, conus medullaris, and nerve root levels. No fenestrations were found in samples at the thoracic level. At present, we cannot determine the significance of these findings.

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