Object The authors describe an experimental model of closed head injury in rodents that was modified from one developed by Marmarou and colleagues. This modification allows dual control of the dynamic process of impact compared with impulse loading that occurs at the moment of primary brain injury. The principal element in this weight-drop model is an adjustable table that supports the rat at the moment of impact from weights positioned at different heights (accelerations). The aim was to obtain reproducible pathological intracranial pressure (ICPs) while maximally reducing the incidence of mortality and skull fractures. Methods Intracranial pressure was investigated in different experimental settings, including two different rat strains and various impact-acceleration conditions and posttrauma survival times. Identical impact-acceleration injuries produced a considerably higher mortality rate in Wistar rats than in Sprague–Dawley rats (50% and 0%, respectively). Gradually increasing severity of impact-acceleration conditions resulted in findings of a significant correlation between the degree of traumatic challenge and increased ICP at 4 hours (p < 0.001, R2 = 0.73). When the impact-acceleration ratio was changed to result in a more severe head injury, the ICP at 4, 24, and 72 hours was significantly elevated in comparison with that seen in sham-injured rats (4 hours: 19.7 ± 2.8 mm Hg, p = 0.004; 24 hours: 21.8 ± 1.1 mm Hg, p = 0.002; 72 hours: 11.9 ± 2.5 mm Hg, p = 0.009). Comparison of the rise in ICP between moderate and severe impact-acceleration injury at 4 and 24 hours revealed a significantly higher value after severe injury (4 hours: p = 0.008; 24 hours: p = 0.004). Continuous recordings showed that ICP mounted very rapidly to peak values, which declined gradually toward a pathological level dependent on the severity of the primary insult. Histological examination after severe trauma revealed evidence of irreversible neuronal necrosis, diffuse axonal injury, petechial bleeding, glial swelling, and perivascular edema. Conclusions This modified closed head injury model mimics several clinical features of traumatic injury and produces reliable, predictable, and reproducible ICP elevations with concomitant morphological alterations.

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This modified closed head injury model mimics several clinical features of traumatic injury and produces reliable, predictable, and reproducible ICP elevations with concomitant morphological alterations.

The cerebroprotective effect of flunarizine was studied in a minimally invasive model of photochemically induced cerebral infarction in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Intravenous administration of the photosensitizing dye rose bengal and intense focal illumination of the brain produced a deep cortical infarction that resulted from singlet oxygen-induced peroxidative injury to the endothelial membrane, subsequent platelet adhesion, and eventual thrombus formation. The infarct size was calculated from area measurements on consecutive histologic sections prepared from the brain cortex 4 hours after the onset of the insult. Oral treatment with 40 mg/kg flunarizine 3 hours before photoexcitation resulted in a significant reduction of the median infarct size from 11.75 mm 3 in the untreated group to 6.40 mm 3 in the treated group (a = 13, p<0.001). At this dose, flunarizine had no effect on systemic blood pressure. In a separate experiment the area of thrombotic obstruction was quantified 30 minutes after the onset of light exposure. Flunarizine did not significantly reduce early thrombus formation (2.28 mm 3 in the untreated and 1.78 mm 3 in the treated group) (n = 12, p = 0.2). The infarcted area at 4 hours was considerably larger than the initial thrombotic area. Protection with flunarizine against development of cortical infarction has been unequivocally shown. Although some effect may already be present at the early stage of lesion formation, the major protective action admittedly occurred in the later postinsult period when the lesion was expanding. The observed beneficial effects may be attributed to preservation of the integrity of endothelial cell membranes (reduction of platelet adhesion and vasogenic edema formation), of neuronal cell membranes (inhibition of toxic Ca 2+ overload), and of glial cell membranes (prevention of cytotoxic edema formation). The results indicate that flunarizine may be of clinical use for the suppression of thrombotic stroke.