Objective To estimate point prevalence and assess the association of types of trauma with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a sociodemographically and racially mixed sample of women from both predominantly Medicaid and privately insured settings expecting their first infant. Methods Structured telephone diagnostic interview data were analyzed for prevalence of trauma exposure, PTSD, comorbidity, risk behaviors, and treatment-seeking among 1,581 diverse English-speaking nulliparous women. Results The overall rate of lifetime PTSD was 20.2%, 17% in the predominantly private-payer settings, 23% in the predominantly public-payer settings. The overall rate of current PTSD was 7.9%, 2.9% and 13.9% respectively. Those with current PTSD were more likely to be African American, pregnant as a teen, living in poverty, with high school education or less, and living in higher crime areas. Adjusted odds of having current PTSD were highest among those whose worst trauma exposure was abuse (OR = 11.9, 95% CI 3.6, 39.9), followed by reproductive trauma (OR = 6.1, 95% CI 1.5, 24.4). Health risk behaviors and exposures were concentrated among those with PTSD. Conclusion These findings affirm that PTSD affects pregnant women. Women with PTSD in pregnancy were more like to have had exposures to childhood abuse and prior traumatic reproductive event, to have cumulative sociodemographic risk factors, comorbid depression and anxiety, and to have sought mental health treatment in the past. Obstetric risk behaviors occur more in women with PTSD. Research is needed to assess the effect of PTSD, a potentially modifiable source of perinatal morbidity, on obstetric outcomes.

Intersectionality is a term used to describe the intersecting effects of race, class, gender, and other marginalizing characteristics that contribute to social identity and affect health. Adverse health effects are thought to occur via social processes including discrimination and structural inequalities (i.e., reduced opportunities for education and income). Although intersectionality has been well-described conceptually, approaches to modeling it in quantitative studies of health outcomes are still emerging. Strategies to date have focused on modeling demographic characteristics as proxies for structural inequality. Our objective was to extend these methodological efforts by modeling intersectionality across three levels: structural, contextual, and interpersonal, consistent with a social-ecological framework. We conducted a secondary analysis of a database that included two components of a widely used survey instrument, the Everyday Discrimination Scale. We operationalized a meso- or interpersonal-level of intersectionality using two variables, the frequency score of discrimination experiences and the sum of characteristics listed as reasons for these (i.e., the person’s race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, religion, disability or pregnancy status, or physical appearance). We controlled for two structural inequality factors (low education, poverty) and three contextual factors (high crime neighborhood, racial minority status, and trauma exposures). The outcome variables we modeled were posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and a quality of life index score. We used data from 619 women who completed the Everyday Discrimination Scale for a perinatal study in the U.S. state of Michigan. Statistical results indicated that the two interpersonal-level variables (i.e., number of marginalized identities, frequency of discrimination) explained 15% of variance in posttraumatic stress symptoms and 13% of variance in quality of life scores, improving the predictive value of the models over those using structural inequality and contextual factors alone. This study’s results point to instrument development ideas to improve the statistical modeling of intersectionality in health and social science research.

Objective To determine the extent to which prenatal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with lower birth weight and shorter gestation, and to explore the effects of childhood maltreatment as the antecedent trauma exposure. Design Prospective three-cohort study Setting Ann Arbor and Detroit, Michigan, United States Sample 839 diverse nulliparas in PTSD-positive (n=255), trauma-exposed, resilient (n=307), and non-exposed to trauma (n=277) cohorts Methods Standardised telephone interview prior to 28 weeks to ascertain trauma history, PTSD, depression, substance use, mental health treatment history, and sociodemographics, with chart abstraction to obtain chronic condition history, antepartum complications, and prenatal care data, as well as outcomes. Main outcome measures Infant birth weight and gestational age per delivery record. Results Women with PTSD during pregnancy had a mean birth weight 283 grams less than trauma-exposed, resilient women and 221 grams less than non-exposed women (F(3, 835) = 5.4, p = .001). PTSD was also associated with shorter gestation in multivariate models that took childhood abuse history into account. Stratified models indicated that PTSD subsequent to child abuse trauma exposure was most strongly associated with adverse outcomes. PTSD was a stronger predictor than African American race of shorter gestation and a nearly equal predictor of birth weight. Prenatal care was not associated with better outcomes among women abused in childhood. Conclusions Abuse-related PTSD may be an additional or alternative explanation for adverse perinatal outcomes associated with low socioeconomic status and African American race in the United States. Biological and interventions research is warranted along with replication studies in other nations.

Introduction Research is needed that prospectively characterizes the intergenerational pattern of effects of childhood maltreatment and lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on women’s mental health in pregnancy and on postpartum mental health and bonding outcomes. This prospective study included 566 nulliparous women in 3 cohorts: PTSD-positive, trauma-exposed resilient, and non-exposed to trauma. Methods Standardized telephone interviews with women who were less than 28 gestational weeks ascertained trauma history, PTSD diagnosis, and depression diagnosis. A six-week postpartum interview reassessed interim trauma, labor experience, PTSD, depression, and bonding outcomes. Results Regression modeling indicates posttraumatic stress in pregnancy, alone, or comorbid with depression, is associated with postpartum depression (R2=.204, P<.001). Postpartum depression alone, or comorbid with posttraumatic stress, was associated with impaired bonding (R2=.195, P<.001). In both models, higher quality of life ratings in pregnancy were associated with better outcomes, while reported dissociation in labor was a risk for worse outcomes. The effect of a history of childhood maltreatment on both postpartum mental health and bonding outcomes was mediated by pre-existing mental health status. Discussion Pregnancy represents an opportune time to interrupt the pattern of intergenerational transmission of abuse and psychiatric vulnerability. Further dyadic research is warranted beyond six weeks postpartum. Trauma-informed interventions for women who enter care with abuse-related PTSD or depression should be developed and tested.

Adverse childhood experiences have a strong negative impact on health and are a significant public health concern. Adverse childhood experiences, including various forms of child maltreatment, together with their mental health sequelae (eg, posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, dissociation) also contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes (eg, preterm birth, low birth weight), poor postpartum mental health, and impaired or delayed bonding. Intergenerational patterns of maltreatment and mental health disorders have been reported that could be addressed in the childbearing year. Trauma-informed care is increasingly used in health care organizations and has the potential to assist in improving maternal and infant health. This article presents an overview of traumatic stress sequelae of childhood maltreatment and adversity, the impact of traumatic stress on childbearing, and technical assistance that is available from the National Center for Trauma-Informed Care (NCTIC) before articulating some steps to conceptualizing and implementing trauma-informed care into midwifery and other maternity care practices.

To determine whether African American women expecting their first infant carry a disproportionate burden of posttraumatic stress disorder morbidity, we conducted a comparative analysis of cross-sectional data from the initial psychiatric interview in a prospective cohort study of posttraumatic stress disorder effects on childbearing outcomes. Participants were recruited from maternity clinics in three health systems in the Midwestern USA. Eligibility criteria were being 18 years or older, able to speak English, expecting a first infant, and less than 28 weeks gestation. Telephone interview data was collected from 1,581 women prior to 28 weeks gestation; four declined to answer racial identity items (n =1,577), 709 women self-identified as African American, 868 women did not. Measures included the Life Stressor Checklist, the National Women’s Study Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Module, the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, and the Centers for Disease Control’s Perinatal Risk Assessment Monitoring System survey. The 709 African American pregnant women had more trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and diagnosis, comorbidity and pregnancy substance use, and had less mental health treatment than 868 non-African Americans. Lifetime prevalence was 24.0% versus 17.1%, respectively (OR=1.5, p=0.001). Current prevalence was 13.4% versus 3.5% (OR=4.3, p< 0.001). Current prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was four times higher among African American women. Their risk for PTSD did not differ by sociodemographic status, but was explained by greater trauma exposure. Traumatic stress may be an additional, addressable stress factor in birth outcome disparities.

Our objective was to address the gap in knowledge about the extent to which perinatal mental health and risk behaviors are associated with childhood and adult experiences of abuse that arises because of barriers to screening and disclosure about past and current abuse. Survey data from an ongoing study of the effects of posttraumatic stress on childbearing were used to describe four groups of nulliparous women: those with no abuse history, adult abuse only, childhood abuse only, and abuse that occurred during both periods. The rates of abuse history disclosure were higher in the research context than in the clinical settings. Mental health morbidity and risk behaviors occurred in a dose-response pattern with cumulative abuse exposure. Rates of current posttraumatic stress disorder ranged from 4.1% among those never abused to 11.4% (adult only), 16.0% (childhood only), and 39.2% (both periods). Women abused during both periods also were more likely to be using tobacco (21.5%) and drugs (16.5%) during pregnancy. We conclude that mental health and behavioral risk sequelae affect a significant portion of both childhood and adult abuse survivors in prenatal care. The integration into the maternity setting of existing evidence-based interventions for the mental health and behavioral sequelae of abuse is needed.

Pregnant women with history of abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have increased risk of adverse mental health and childbearing outcomes. The Survivor Moms’ Companion (SMC) is a psychoeducation program designed to meet the needs of women abuse survivors affected by PTSD during the childbearing year. This article reports on the feasibility, safety, and acceptability findings of an open pilot. Participants completed 10 self-study modules and structured tutoring sessions, and completed self-report measures, including reports of tutor fidelity to the manual, repeated assessment of PTSD symptoms, Subjective Units of Disturbance (SUD) scores, and evaluation interviews. Results indicate that the intervention can be implemented within low-resource settings with high level of fidelity to the manual. Monitoring of PTSD symptom level and distress indicate that the intervention is safe. Participants report satisfaction with the format and content and appreciation for the tutoring component. The SMC appears to be feasible, safe, and acceptable.