Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a common disorder characterized by ovulatory dysfunction and hyperandrogenemia (HA). Neuroendocrine abnormalities including increased gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulse frequency, increased luteinizing hormone (LH) pulsatility, and relatively decreased follicle stimulating hormone contribute to its pathogenesis. HA reduces inhibition of GnRH pulse frequency by progesterone, causing rapid LH pulse secretion and increasing ovarian androgen production. The origins of persistently rapid GnRH secretion are unknown but appear to evolve during puberty. Obese girls are at risk for HA and develop increased LH pulse frequency with elevated mean LH by late puberty. However, even early pubertal girls with HA have increased LH pulsatility and enhanced daytime LH pulse secretion, indicating the abnormalities may begin early in puberty. Decreasing sensitivity to progesterone may regulate normal maturation of LH secretion, potentially related to normally increasing levels of testosterone during puberty. This change in sensitivity may become exaggerated in girls with HA. Many girls with HA—especially those with hyperinsulinemia—do not exhibit normal LH pulse sensitivity to progesterone inhibition. Thus, HA may adversely affect LH pulse regulation during pubertal maturation leading to persistent HA and the development of PCOS.

BackgroundFollowing damage to the intestinal epithelium, restoration of epithelial barrier integrity is triggered by a robust proliferative response. In other tissues, focal adhesion kinase (FAK) regulates many of the cellular processes that are critical for epithelial homeostasis and restitution, including cell migration, proliferation and survival. However, few studies to date have determined how FAK contributes to mucosal wound healing in vivo.Methodology and Principal FindingsTo examine the role of FAK in intestinal epithelial homeostasis and during injury, we generated intestinal epithelium (IE)-specific conditional FAK knockout mice. Colitis was induced with dextran-sulfate-sodium (DSS) and intestinal tissues were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting. While intestinal development occurred normally in mice lacking FAK, FAK-deficient animals were profoundly susceptible to colitis. The loss of epithelial FAK resulted in elevated p53 expression and an increased sensitivity to apoptosis, coincident with a failure to upregulate epithelial cell proliferation. FAK has been reported to function as a mechanosensor, inducing cyclin D1 expression and promoting cell cycle progression under conditions in which tissue/matrix stiffness is increased. Collagen deposition, a hallmark of inflammatory injury resulting in increased tissue rigidity, was observed in control and FAK knockout mice during colitis. Despite this fibrotic response, the colonic epithelium in FAK-deficient mice exhibited significantly reduced cyclin D1 expression, suggesting that proliferation is uncoupled from fibrosis in the absence of FAK. In support of this hypothesis, proliferation of Caco-2 cells increased proportionally with matrix stiffness in vitro only under conditions of normal FAK expression; FAK depleted cells exhibited reduced proliferation concomitant with attenuated cyclin D1 expression.ConclusionsIn the colon, FAK functions as a regulator of epithelial cell survival and proliferation under conditions of mucosal injury and a mechanosensor of tissue compliance, inducing repair-driven proliferation in the colonic epithelium through upregulation of cyclin D1.

Integrins are involved in the binding and internalization of both enveloped and nonenveloped viruses. By using 3 distinct cell systems-CHO cells lacking expression of ␣5␤1-integrin, HeLa cells treated with siRNA to ␣5-integrin, and mouse ␤1-integrin knockout fibroblasts, we show that ␣5␤1-integrin is required for efficient infection by pseudovirions bearing the ebolavirus glycoprotein (GP). These integrins are necessary for viral entry but not for binding or internalization. Given the need for endosomal cathepsins B and L (CatB and CatL) to prime GPs for fusion, we investigated the status of CatB and CatL in integrin-positive and integrin-negative cell lines. ␣5␤1-Integrin-deficient cells lacked the double-chain (DC) forms of CatB and CatL, and this correlated with decreased CatL activity in integrin-negative CHO cells. These data indicate that ␣5␤1-integrin-negative cells may be refractory to infection by GP pseudovirions because they lack the necessary priming machinery (the double-chain forms of CatB and CatL). In support of this model, we show that GP pseudovirions that have been preprimed in vitro to generate the 19-kDa form of GP overcome the requirement for ␣5␤1-integrin for infection. These results provide further support for the requirement for endosomal cathepsins for ebolavirus infection, identify the DC forms of these cathepsins as previously unrecognized factors that contribute to cell tropism of this virus, and reveal a previously undescribed role for integrins during viral entry as regulators of endosomal cathepsins, which are required to prime the entry proteins of ebolavirus and other pathogenic viruses.Ebola ͉ filovirus ͉ virus entry ͉ proteolytic priming

Macrophages function as key inflammatory mediators at sites of infection and tissue damage. Integrin and growth factor receptors facilitate recruitment of monocytes/macrophages to sites of inflammation in response to numerous extracellular stimuli. We have shown recently that FAK plays a role in regulating macrophage chemotaxis and invasion. As FAK is an established downstream mediator of integrin signaling, we sought to define the molecular circuitry involving FAK and the predominant β1 integrin heterodimers expressed in these cells-α4β1 and α5β1. We show that α4β1 and α5β1 integrins are required for efficient haptotactic and chemotactic invasion and that stimulation of these integrin receptors leads to the adoption of distinct morphologies associated with motility. FAK is required downstream of α5β1 for haptotaxis toward FN and chemotaxis toward M-CSF-1 and downstream of α4β1 for the adoption of a polarized phenotype. The scaffolding molecule paxillin functions independently of FAK to promote chemotaxis downstream of α4β1. These studies expand our understanding of β1 integrin signaling networks that regulate motility and invasion in macrophages and thus, provide important new insights into mechanisms by which macrophages perform their diverse functions.

In women, progesterone suppresses luteinizing hormone (LH) (gonadotropin‐releasing hormone) pulse frequency, but how rapidly this occurs is unknown. In estradiol‐pretreated women in the late follicular phase, progesterone administration at 1800 did not slow sleep‐associated LH pulse frequency. However, mechanisms controlling LH pulse frequency may differ according to sleep status; and we thus hypothesized that progesterone acutely suppresses waking LH pulse frequency. This was a randomized, double‐blind, crossover study of LH secretory responses to progesterone versus placebo administered at 0600. We studied 12 normal women in the late follicular phase (cycle days 7–11), pretreated with 3 days of transdermal estradiol (0.2 mg/day). Subjects underwent a 24‐h blood sampling protocol (starting at 2000) and received either 100 mg oral micronized progesterone or placebo at 0600. In a subsequent menstrual cycle, subjects underwent an identical protocol except that oral progesterone was exchanged for placebo or vice versa. Changes in 10‐h LH pulse frequency were similar between progesterone and placebo. However, mean LH, LH pulse amplitude, and mean follicle‐stimulating hormone exhibited significantly greater increases with progesterone. Compared to our previous study (progesterone administered at 1800), progesterone administration at 0600 was associated with a similar increase in mean LH, but a less pronounced increase in LH pulse amplitude. We conclude that, in estradiol‐pretreated women in the late follicular phase, a single dose of progesterone does not suppress waking LH pulse frequency within 12 h, but it acutely amplifies mean LH and LH pulse amplitude – an effect that may be influenced by sleep status and/or time of day.