The genome of Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) consists of a set of eleven ‘core’ chromosomes, shared by most strains and responsible for housekeeping, and one or several accessory chromosomes. We sequenced a strain of Fo f.sp. radicis-cucumerinum (Forc) using PacBio SMRT sequencing. All but one of the core chromosomes were assembled into single contigs, and a chromosome that shows all the hallmarks of a pathogenicity chromosome comprised two contigs. A central part of this chromosome contains all identified candidate effector genes, including homologs of SIX6, SIX9, SIX11 and SIX 13. We show that SIX6 contributes to virulence of Forc. Through horizontal chromosome transfer (HCT) to a non-pathogenic strain, we also show that the accessory chromosome containing the SIX gene homologs is indeed a pathogenicity chromosome for cucurbit infection. Conversely, complete loss of virulence was observed in Forc016 strains that lost this chromosome. We conclude that also a non-wilt-inducing Fo pathogen relies on effector proteins for successful infection and that the Forc pathogenicity chromosome contains all the information necessary for causing root rot of cucurbits. Three out of nine HCT strains investigated have undergone large-scale chromosome alterations, reflecting the remarkable plasticity of Fo genomes.

The polyphyletic nature of many of prevents molecular identification of newly encountered strains based on conserved, vertically inherited genes. Alternative molecular detection methods that could replace labor- and time-intensive disease assays are therefore highly desired. Effectors are functional elements in the pathogen-host interaction and have been found to show very limited sequence diversity between strains of the same , which makes them potential markers for host-specific pathogenicity. We therefore compared candidate effector genes extracted from 60 existing and 22 newly generated genome assemblies, specifically targeting strains affecting cucurbit plant species. Based on these candidate effector genes, a total of 18 PCR primer pairs were designed to discriminate between each of the seven Cucurbitaceae-affecting When tested on a collection of strains encompassing different clonal lineages of these , nonpathogenic strains, and strains of other, they allowed clear recognition of the host range of each evaluated strain. Within f. sp. more genetic variability exists than anticipated, resulting in three f. sp. marker patterns that partially overlapped with the cucurbit-infecting f. sp., f. sp., f. sp., and/or f. sp. For f. sp., a multiplex TaqMan assay was evaluated and was shown to allow quantitative and specific detection of template DNA quantities as low as 2.5 pg. These results provide ready-to-use marker sequences for the mentioned pathogens. Additionally, the method can be applied to find markers distinguishing other host-specific forms of Pathogenic strains of are differentiated into based on their host range, which is normally restricted to only one or a few plant species. However, horizontal gene transfer between strains in the species complex has resulted in a polyphyletic origin of host specificity in many of these This hinders accurate and rapid pathogen detection through molecular methods. In our research, we compared the genomes of 88 strains of with each other, specifically targeting virulence-related genes that are typically highly similar within each Using this approach, we identified marker sequences that allow the discrimination of strains affecting various cucurbit plant species through different PCR-based methods.

In Arabidopsis more than 400 proteins have been identified as SUMO targets, both in vivo and in vitro. Among others, transcription factors (TFs) are common targets for SUMO conjugation. Here we aimed to exhaustively screen for TFs that interact with the SUMO machinery using an arrayed yeast two-hybrid library containing more than 1,100 TFs. We identified 76 interactors that foremost interact with the SUMO conjugation enzyme SCE1 and/or the SUMO E3 ligase SIZ1. These interactors belong to various TF families, which control a wide range of processes in plant development and stress signaling. Amongst these interactors, the TCP family was overrepresented with several TCPs interacting with different proteins of the SUMO conjugation cycle. For a subset of these TCPs we confirmed that the catalytic site of SCE1 is essential for this interaction. In agreement, TCP1, TCP3, TCP8, TCP14, and TCP15 were readily SUMO modified in an E. coli sumoylation assay. Strikingly, these TCP-SCE1 interactions were found to redistribute these TCPs into nuclear foci/speckles, suggesting that these TCP foci represent sites for SUMO (conjugation) activity.

Herbivorous insects are responsible for large losses to agriculture through feeding damage itself but also by vectoring pathogens such as viruses. Plants have evolved various mechanisms to defend themselves against insects, including the production of specialised metabolites that act as natural insecticides. Throughout history, plants and plant extracts harbouring specialised metabolites have been exploited by man for their antiinsect properties. Also, commercial insecticides are often based on plant-specialised metabolites and adapted further e.g. to give them the physicochemical properties that render them systemic. The development and application of these synthetic pesticides has made it possible to scale up the production and to increase the yield of food crops worldwide. However, their adversary effects on the environment and on non-target organisms, first discussed in Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, continue to cause debate and recently resulted in a ban on the use of certain pesticides in the European Union. The trait of insect defence has been largely overlooked during crop domestication and resulted in basically unarmed crop plants. Endogenous production of specialised metabolites could be reintroduced in modern crop varieties to retrieve self-defences. However, despite the fact that a plethora of specialised metabolites from plants has been described, studies that validate their deterrent or insecticidal effect in planta (crop), let alone in field situations, are sparse. To answer the question whether it is feasible to reintroduce endogenous insecticides to bring about insect resistance, the defence metabolites of plants, their synthesis and regulatory mechanisms underlying their production are examined.