The regulation of innate immune responses during viral infection is a crucial step to promote anti-viralreactions. Recent studies have drawn attention to a strong relationship of pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMP) recognition with autophagy for activation of APC function. Our initial observations indicated that autophagosomes formed in response to RSV infection of DC. To further investigate whether RSV-induced DC activation and innate cytokine production was associated with autophagy, we utilized several methods to block autophagosome formation. Using 3-MA,siRNA inhibition of LC3,or Beclin +/- mouse derived DC,studies establisheda relationship between RSV-induced autophagy and enhanced type I IFN, TNF, IL-6, and IL-12p40expression. Moreover, autophagosome formation induced by starvation also promoted innate cytokine expression in DC. The induction of starvation-induced autophagy in combination with RSV infection synergistically enhanced DC cytokine expressionthat was blocked by an autophagy inhibitor. The latter synergistic responses were differentially altered in DC from MyD88-/- and TRIF-/-mice supporting the concept of autophagy-mediated TLR signaling. In addition, blockade of autophagy in RSV-infected DC inhibited the maturation of DCs as assessed by MHC Class II and co-stimulatory molecule expression. Subsequently, we demonstrated that inhibition of autophagy in DCsused to stimulateprimary ovalbumin-induced and secondary RSV-infected responses significantly attenuatedcytokine production by CD4+ T cells. Thus, these studies have outlined that autophagy in DC afterRSV infection isa crucial mechanism for driving innate cytokine productionleading to alteredacquired immune responses.

Recent work has demonstrated the importance of macroautophagy in dendritic cell (DC) maturation and innate cytokine production upon viral infection through delivery of cytoplasmic viral components to intracellular toll-like receptors. To study the functional consequences of impaired autophagosome formation during a Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) infection, mice harboring significant autophagy defects due to Beclin-1 haploinsufficiency (Beclin-1+/−) were used. Upon RSV infection in vivo, lungs of Beclin-1+/− mice showed increased Th2 cytokine production, mucus secretion, and lung infiltration of eosinophils and inflammatory DCs. While isolated airway epithelial cells from Beclin-1+/− mice demonstrated little change compared to wildtype, Beclin-1+/− pulmonary and bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) showed decreased expression of MHC-II and innate cytokine production upon RSV infection. Further examination indicated that Beclin-1+/− DC stimulated less IFNγ and IL-17 production by co-cultured CD4+ T cells and increased Th2 cytokine production in comparison to wild-type controls. Finally, adoptive transfer of RSV-infected Beclin-1+/− DCs into the airways of wild-type mice produced severe lung pathology and increased Th2 cytokine production upon subsequent RSV challenge compared to wild-type DC transfer controls. These results indicate a critical role of autophagy in dendritic cells during pulmonary viral infection, facilitating appropriate antiviral adaptive immune responses.

While recent studies suggest that IL-1β production is modulated by macroautophagy or sensors of ER stress upon pro-inflammatory insult, autophagy and IL-1β production during viral infection has not been fully investigated. This was addressed using respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which is associated with lung immunopathology, IL-1, and IL-17a secretion in severely infected patients. Mice deficient in the autophagy-associated protein Map1-LC3b (LC3b−/−) developed increased IL-17a-dependent lung pathology upon infection. RSV-infected LC3b−/− DCs fail to upregulate autophagosome formation, secrete IL-1β and IL-6, and elicit IL-17a production from CD4+ T cells. Bone marrow chimeras revealed both structural and hematopoietic LC3b deficiency contribute to the development of IL-17a-dependent lung pathology in vivo. Further investigation revealed airway epithelium as the primary source of IL-1β during infection, while inhibition of the ER-stress sensor IRE-1 in primary airway epithelial cells reduced IL-1β production identifying a primary ER stress pathway. Finally, blockade of IL-1 receptor signaling in RSV-infected LC3b−/− mice abolished IL-17a-dependent lung pathology. These findings provide novel mechanistic insight into the contribution of autophagy- and ER stress-dependent cytokine production that initiate and maintain aberrant Th17 responses, while identifying IL-1 as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of severe respiratory viral infections.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the major cause of lower respiratory tract infection in children worldwide. Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), an NAD+ dependent deacetylase, has been associated with the induction of autophagy and the regulation of inflammatory mediators. We found that Sirt1 was upregulated in mouse lung after RSV infection. Infected animals that received EX-527, a selective SIRT1 inhibitor, displayed exacerbated lung pathology, with increased mucus production, elevated viral load, and enhanced Th2 cytokine production. Gene expression analysis of isolated cell populations revealed that Sirt1 was most highly upregulated in RSV-treated dendritic cells (DCs). Upon RSV infection, EX-527-treated DCs, Sirt1 siRNA-treated DCs, or DCs from conditional knockout (Sirt1f/f-CD11c–Cre+) mice showed downregulated inflammatory cytokine gene expression and attenuated autophagy. Finally, RSV infection of Sirt1f/f-CD11c–Cre+ mice resulted in altered lung and lymph node cytokine responses, leading to exacerbated pathology. These data indicate that SIRT1 promotes DC activation associated with autophagy-mediated processes during RSV infection, thereby directing efficient antiviral immune responses.

IL-27 is a heterodimeric cytokine composed of the subunits p28 and Epstein-Barr virus induced gene (EBI)-3 and is known for its effects on T-cell function and differentiation. IL-27 signals through the widely expressed IL-27 receptor (IL-27R), composed of the ligand-specific IL-27Rα chain and gp130. Engagement of the IL-27R activates STAT1 signaling, induces the expression of the type 1 helper T-cell (Th1) cytokine, interferon γ, and suppresses the differentiation of Th2 and Th17 cells. This study investigates the role of IL-27 signaling in respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection using IL-27Rα-deficient mice (IL-27rKO). Analysis of lungs from RSV-infected IL-27rKO mice showed exacerbation of mucus secretion compared with wild type, as well as enhanced expression of Muc5ac and Gob5 mRNA, markers of goblet cell metaplasia/hyperplasia. When compared with wild-type mice, RSV-challenged IL-27rKO mice had enhanced expression of Th17-associated cytokine IL-17a and an imbalance between Th1 and Th2 cytokine levels. Neutralization of IL-17 in RSV-infected IL-27rKO mice resulted in a significant decrease in the pulmonary mucus response and inhibition of the Th2-associated cytokines. Interestingly, IL-17 blockage led to an increase in the expression of IL-27 subunits p28 and EBI-3 in the lungs and lymph nodes of RSV-infected mice. Thus, IL-27 functions as a regulatory cytokine during RSV pathogenesis by suppressing the development of Th17 cells, but it also appears to be regulated by IL-17 induced by the virus.

CD47 is a ubiquitously expressed transmembrane glycoprotein that regulates inflammatory responses and tissue repair. Here, we show that normal mice treated with anti-CD47 antibodies, and Cd47-null mice have impaired intestinal mucosal wound healing. Furthermore, intestinal epithelial cell (IEC)-specific loss of CD47 does not induce spontaneous immune-mediated intestinal barrier disruption but results in defective mucosal repair after biopsy-induced colonic wounding or Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-induced mucosal damage. In vitro analyses using primary cultures of CD47-deficient murine colonic IEC or human colonoid-derived IEC treated with CD47-blocking antibodies demonstrate impaired epithelial cell migration in wound healing assays. Defective wound repair after CD47 loss is linked to decreased epithelial β1 integrin and focal adhesion signaling, as well as reduced thrombospondin-1 and TGF-β1. These results demonstrate a critical role for IEC-expressed CD47 in regulating mucosal repair and raise important considerations for possible alterations in wound healing secondary to therapeutic targeting of CD47.

Cryptic coloration is a classic example of evolution by natural selection. However, it has been studied almost exclusively in predator-prey systems, despite the fact that it may evolve in other groups, such as ectoparasites. The principle defense of hosts against ectoparasites is grooming behavior, which has a visual component. Host-imposed selection should lead to the evolution of background matching if it helps ectoparasites escape from grooming. Here we use sister taxa comparisons to show that avian feather lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) have evolved coloration that matches the host's plumage, except in the case of head lice, which are protected from grooming. We also show covariation of parasite and host color within a single species of louse. Thus, cryptic coloration has evolved both within and between species of feather lice. Other examples of the evolution of crypsis presumably exist among the 70,000 known species of ectoparasites that collectively represent five animal phyla.

Photoreceptors are polarized neurons, with very specific subcellular compartmentalization and unique requirements for protein expression and trafficking. Each photoreceptor contains an outer segment, the site of photon capture that initiates vision, an inner segment that houses the biosynthetic machinery and a synaptic terminal for signal transmission to downstream neurons. Outer segments and inner segments are connected by a connecting cilium (CC), the equivalent of a transition zone (TZ) of primary cilia. The connecting cilium is part of the basal body/axoneme backbone that stabilizes the outer segment. This report will update the reader on late developments in photoreceptor ciliogenesis and transition zone formation, specifically in mouse photoreceptors, focusing on early events in photoreceptor ciliogenesis. The connecting cilium, an elongated and narrow structure through which all outer segment proteins and membrane components must traffic, functions as a gate that controls access to the outer segment. Here we will review genes and their protein products essential for basal body maturation and for CC/TZ genesis, sorted by phenotype. Emphasis is given to naturally occurring mouse mutants and gene knockouts that interfere with CC/TZ formation and ciliogenesis.