During the mid-Pleistocene Transition (MPT), 2 families, 14 genera and 41 species of benthic foraminifera (Extinction Group) declined in abundance (8-12 % of early Pleistocene benthic foraminiferal fauna) and finally disappeared at mid-bathyal depths in the Caribbean Sea (ODP Site 1000A, 916m depth), as part of the global extinction of at least 73 deep-water species at this time. At this site, the final phase of pulsed glacial decline, partial interglacial recoveries (0.8-0.67 Ma), and final extinction (0.58 Ma) was essentially the same as the youngest level so far documented elsewhere (0.57 Ma). Extinction Group specimens had smaller average sizes during periods of decline than during favorable periods with higher abundances. Census counts on different size fractions indicate that this extinction event is best recorded by studies of shells in the 150-300µm size range. Pteropod dissolution proxies indicate that intermediate waters in the Caribbean became less corrosive around the onset of the MPT (after c. 1.2 Ma). This is interpreted to be a result of increased input of northern hemisphere-sourced intermediate water at the expense of southern-sourced Antarctic Intermediate Water. Intervals of enhanced Extinction Group decline in intermediate waters in the Caribbean occurred during glacials around the start (1.15-1.05 Ma) and end (0.83-0.65 Ma) of the MPT. During these glacial periods preservation of carbonate was optimal and ä 13 C values high (in source waters at mid-depths in the North Atlantic), suggesting a causal link with enhanced inflow of a less-corrosive, colder, nutrient-depleted, well-ventilated water mass, such as Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water.

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Optimized medicinal plant processing and extraction can improve extract yield and efficiency for valued secondary metabolites while reducing operation costs. This study investigated the effects of the particle size [coarse (2–4 mm), medium (0.5–2 mm), fine (0.25–0.5 mm)], solvents (ethanol, butanol, hexane), and extraction temperature (−20 °C, 4 °C, room temperature) on extracted crude cannabis oil yield and cannabinoid/terpene concentrations using a full factorial design. Results indicate that finer particle size significantly increased the cannabinoid concentrations in the extracts. Ethanol extraction with fine-sized cannabis particles at 4 °C obtained the highest crude oil yield of 28% and had improved recovery rates: 41% for THCA, 36% for CBGA, and higher total terpene concentration (1550 mg/100 g dry matter) in the extracts. Irrespective of temperature and particle size, the solvents produced extracts with different colors: dark green for ethanol, green for butanol, and yellow for hexane. This research provides grinding and extraction conditions with scale-up potential by the cannabis industry to achieve higher crude cannabis oil yield with significant cannabinoids and terpene concentrations.

Efficient determination of antioxidant activity in medicinal plants may provide added value to extracts. The effects of postharvest pre-freezing and drying [microwave-assisted hot air (MAHD) and freeze drying] on hops and cannabis were evaluated to determine the relationship between antioxidant activity and secondary metabolites. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazine (DPPH) reduction and ferric reducing ability of power (FRAP) assays were assessed for suitability in estimating the antioxidant activity of extracted hops and cannabis inflorescences and correlation with cannabinoid and terpene content. Antioxidant activity in extracts obtained from fresh, undried samples amounted to 3.6 Trolox equivalent antioxidant activity (TEAC) (M) dry matter−1 and 2.32 FRAP (M) dry matter−1 for hops, in addition to 2.29 TEAC (M) dry matter−1 and 0.25 FRAP (M) dry matter−1 for cannabis. Pre-freezing significantly increased antioxidant values by 13% (DPPH) and 29.9% (FRAP) for hops, and by 7.7% (DPPH) and 19.4% (FRAP) for cannabis. ANOVA analyses showed a significant (p < 0.05) increase in total THC (24.2) and THCA (27.2) concentrations (g 100 g dry matter−1) in pre-frozen, undried samples compared to fresh, undried samples. Freeze-drying and MAHD significantly (p < 0.05) reduced antioxidant activity in hops by 79% and 80.2% [DPPH], respectively and 70.1% and 70.4% [FRAP], respectively, when compared to antioxidant activity in extracts obtained from pre-frozen, undried hops. DPPH assay showed that both freeze-drying and MAHD significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the antioxidant activity of cannabis by 60.5% compared to the pre-frozen samples although, there was no significant (p < 0.05) reduction in the antioxidant activity using the FRAP method. Greater THC content was measured in MAHD-samples when compared to fresh, undried (64.7%) and pre-frozen, undried (57%), likely because of decarboxylation. Both drying systems showed a significant loss in total terpene concentration, yet freeze-drying has a higher metabolite retention compared to MAHD. These results may prove useful for future experiments investigating antioxidant activity and added value to cannabis and hops.

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