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This paper describes an exploration in using SVM (Support Vector Machine) models, which were initially developed in the Machine Learning community, in flood forecasting, with the focus on the identification of a suitable model structure and its relevant parameters for rainfall runoff modelling. SVM has been applied in many fields and has a high success rate in classification tasks such as pattern recognition, OCR, etc. The applications of SVM in regression of time series are relatively new and they are more problematic in comparison with classifications. This study found that exhaustive search of an optimum model structure and its parameter space is prohibitive due to their sheer size and unknown characteristics. Some parameters are very sensitive and can increase the CPU load tremendously (and hence result in very long computation times). All these make it very difficult to efficiently identify SVM models, which has been carried out by manual operations in all study cases so far. The paper further explored the relationships among various model structures (ξ-SV or ν-SV regression), kernel functions (linear, polynomial, radial basis and sigmoid), scaling factor, model parameters (cost C, epsilon) and composition of input vectors. These relationships should be able to provide useful information for more effective model identification in the future. The unit response curve from SVM was compared with a transfer function model and it is found that a TF model outperforms SVM in short-range predictions. It is still unclear how the unit response curve could be utilised for model identification processes and future exploration in this area is needed.

Climate change is expected to result in an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. In turn, this will result in more frequent occurrences of extreme flood events, such as flash flooding and large-scale river flooding. This being the case, there is a need for more accurate flood risk assessment schemes, particularly in areas prone to extreme flooding. This study investigates what type of flood hazard assessment methods should be used for assessing the flood hazard to people caused by extreme flooding. Two flood hazard assessment criteria were tested, namely: a widely used, empirically derived method, and recently introduced, physically based and experimentally calibrated method. The two selected flood hazard assessment methods were: (1) validated against experimental data, and (2) used to assess flood hazard indices for two different extreme flood events, namely: the 2010 Kostanjevica na Krki extreme river flood and the 2007 Ž elezniki flash flood. The results obtained in this study suggest that in the areas prone to extreme flooding, the flood hazard indices should be based on using the formulae derived for a mechanics-based analysis, as these formulations consider all of the physical forces acting on a human body in floodwaters, take into account the rapid changes in the flow regime, which often occur for extreme flood events, and enable a rapid assessment of the degree of flood hazard risk in a short time period, a feature particularly important when assessing flood hazard indices for high Froude numbers flows.

Assessment of flood inundation mapping of Surat city by coupled 1D/2D hydrodynamic modelling-A case application of the new HEC-RAS 5

Abstract:Accurate information of rainfall is needed for sustainable water management and more reliable flood forecasting. The advances in mesoscale numerical weather modelling and modern computing technologies make it possible to provide rainfall simulations and forecasts at increasingly higher resolutions in space and time. However, being one of the most difficult variables to be modelled, the quality of the rainfall products from the numerical weather model remains unsatisfactory for hydrological applications. In this study, the sensitivity of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is investigated using different domain settings and various storm types to improve the model performance of rainfall simulation. Eight 24-h storm events are selected from the Brue catchment, southwest England, with different spatial and temporal distributions of the rainfall intensity. Five domain configuration scenarios designed with gradually changing downscaling ratios are used to run the WRF model with the ECMWF 40-year reanalysis data for the periods of the eight events. A two-dimensional verification scheme is proposed to evaluate the amounts and distributions of simulated rainfall in both spatial and temporal dimensions. The verification scheme consists of both categorical and continuous indices for a first-level assessment and a more quantitative evaluation of the simulated rainfall. The results reveal a general improvement of the model performance as we downscale from the outermost to the innermost domain. Moderate downscaling ratios of 1:7, 1:5 and 1:3 are found to perform better with the WRF model in giving more reasonable results than smaller ratios. For the sensitivity study on different storm types, the model shows the best performance in reproducing the storm events with spatial and temporal evenness of the observed rainfall, whereas the type of events with highly concentrated rainfall in space and time are found to be the trickiest case for WRF to handle. Finally, the efficiencies of several variability indices are verified in categorising the storm events on the basis of the two-dimensional rainfall evenness, which could provide a more quantitative way for the event classification that facilitates further studies. It is important that similar studies with various storm events are carried out in other catchments with different geographic and climatic conditions, so that more general error patterns can be found and further improvements can be made to the rainfall products from mesoscale numerical weather models.

Flood risk assessment is generally studied using flood simulation models; however, flood risk managers often simplify the computational process; this is called a ''simplification strategy''. This study investigates the appropriateness of the ''simplification strategy'' when used as a flood risk assessment tool for areas prone to flash flooding. The 2004 Boscastle, UK, flash flood was selected as a case study. Three different model structures were considered in this study, including: (1) a shock-capturing model, (2) a regular ADI-type flood model and (3) a diffusion wave model, i.e. a zero-inertia approach. The key findings from this paper strongly suggest that applying the ''simplification strategy'' is only appropriate for flood simulations with a mild slope and over relatively smooth terrains, whereas in areas susceptible to flash flooding (i.e. steep catchments), following this strategy can lead to significantly erroneous predictions of the main parameters-particularly the peak water levels and the inundation extent. For flood risk assessment of urban areas, where the emergence of flash flooding is possible, it is shown to be necessary to incorporate shockcapturing algorithms in the solution procedure, since these algorithms prevent the formation of spurious oscillations and provide a more realistic simulation of the flood levels.

General rightsThis document is made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the published version using the reference above. Abstract: 12We have been facing a remarkable decline in the number of raingauges in many areas of the world, 13 as a compromise to the expensive cost of operating and maintaining raingauges. The question of 14 how to effectively deploy new or remove current raingauges in order to create optimal rainfall 15 information is becoming more and more important. On the other hand, larger-scaled remotely-16 sensed rainfall measurements, although poorer quality compared with traditional raingauge rainfall 17 measurements, provide an insight into the local storm characteristics, which traditional methods 18 for designing a raingauge network sort to seek. Based on these facts, this study proposes a new 19 methodology for raingauge network design using remotely-sensed rainfall data set, which aims to 20 explore how many gauges are essential and where they should be placed. Principal component 21 analysis (PCA) is used to analyse the redundancy of the radar grids network and determine the 22 number of raingauges while the potential locations are determined by cluster analysis (CA) 23 selection. The proposed methodology has been performed on 373 different storm events measured 24 by a weather radar grids network, and compared against an existing dense raingauge network in 25 Southwest England. Due to the simple structure, the proposed scheme could be easily implemented 26 2 in other study areas. This study provides a new insight into raingauge network design, which is 27 also a preliminary attempt of using remotely-sensed data to solve the traditional raingauge 28 problems. 29

It is essential to monitor urban evolution at spatial and temporal scales to improve our understanding of the changes in cities and their impact on natural resources and environmental systems. Various aspects of remote sensing are routinely used to detect and map features and changes on land and sea surfaces, and in the atmosphere that affect urban sustainability. We provide a critical and comprehensive review of the characteristics of remote sensing systems, and in particular the trade-offs between various system parameters, as well as their use in two key research areas: (a) issues resulting from the expansion of urban environments, and (b) sustainable urban development. The analysis identifies three key trends in the existing literature: (a) the integration of heterogeneous remote sensing data, primarily for investigating or modelling urban environments as a complex system, (b) the development of new algorithms for effective extraction of urban features, and (c) the improvement in the accuracy of traditional spectral-based classification algorithms for addressing the spectral heterogeneity within urban areas. Growing interests in renewable energy have also resulted in the increased use of remote sensing-for planning, operation, and maintenance of energy infrastructures, in particular the ones with spatial variability, such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy. The proliferation of sustainability thinking in all facets of urban development and management also acts as a catalyst for the increased use of, and advances in, remote sensing for urban applications.