While protease-activated receptors (PARs) are known to mediate signaling events in CNS, contributing both to normal function and pathogenesis, the endogenous activators of CNS PARs are poorly characterized. In this study, we test the hypothesis that kallikreins (KLKs) represent an important pool of endogenous activators of CNS PARs. Specifically, KLK1 and KLK6 were examined for their ability to evoke intracellular Ca 2+ flux in a PAR-dependent fashion in NSC34 neurons and Neu7 astrocytes. Both KLKs were also examined for their ability to activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (extracellular signal-regulated kinases, C-Jun N-terminal kinases, and p38) and protein kinase B (AKT) intracellular signaling cascades. Cumulatively, these studies show that KLK6, but not KLK1, signals through PARs. KLK6 evoked intracellular Ca 2+ flux was mediated by PAR1 in neurons and both PAR1and PAR2 in astrocytes. Importantly, both KLK1 and KLK6 altered the activation state of mitogen-activated protein kinases and AKT, suggestive of important roles for each in CNS neuron and glial differentiation, and survival. The cellular specificity of CNS-KLK activity was underscored by observations that both proteases promoted AKT activation in astrocytes, but inhibited such signaling in neurons. PAR1 and bradykinin receptor inhibitors were used to demonstrate that KLK1-mediated activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases in neurons occurred in a non-PAR, bradykinin 2 (B2) receptor-dependent fashion, while similar signaling by KLK6 was mediated by the combined activation of PAR1 and B2. Cumulatively results indicate KLK6, but not KLK1 is an activator of CNS PARs, and that both KLKs are poised to signal in a B2 receptor-dependent fashion to regulate multiple signal transduction pathways relevant to CNS physiologic function and dysfunction.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Here we document for the first time that the cytokine IL-33 is upregulated in both the periphery and the CNS of MS patients. Plasma IL-33 was elevated in MS patients compared to normal subjects and a three-month treatment of MS patients with interferon β-1a resulted in significant decrease of IL-33 levels. Similarly, stimulated cultured lymphocytes and macrophages from MS patients had elevated IL-33 levels compared to normal subjects. In parallel, the transcription factor NF-κB that mediates IL-33 transcription was also elevated in leukocytes of MS patients. IL-33 was elevated in normal-appearing white matter and plaque areas from MS brains and astrocytes were identified as an important source of IL-33 expression in the CNS. In summary, IL-33 levels are elevated in the periphery and CNS of MS patients, implicating IL-33 in the pathogenesis of MS.

The protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of cytokine signaling and inflammatory gene expression, both in the immune system and in the central nervous system (CNS). Mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display severe inflammatory demyelinating disease following inoculation with the Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) compared to infected wild-type mice. Therefore, it became essential to investigate the mechanisms of TMEV-induced inflammation in the CNS of SHP-1-deficient mice. Herein, we show that the expression of several genes relevant to inflammatory demyelination in the CNS of infected me/me mice is elevated compared to that in wild-type mice. Furthermore, SHP-1 deficiency led to an abundant and exclusive increase in the infiltration of high-level-CD45-expressing (CD45 hi ) CD11b Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that remains a major cause of disability (76). Several studies demonstrated that MS lesions contain multiple leukocyte cell types, including lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, all of which are believed to contribute to lesion formation by various distinct and interacting mechanisms (54, 61). Among these leukocyte subsets, infiltrating macrophages have been identified as major effectors of demyelination in both MS and animal models for MS (17,44,59,102). In accord with these studies, it was recently reported that the dominant mechanism of demyelination in MS is macrophage mediated (15). Indeed, in some models for MS, the requirement for lymphocytes is negligible and macrophages are the sole mediators of demyelination (6, 72).These findings have stimulated intense interest in the function of macrophages in lesion formation, including signaling events that draw these cells into the CNS white matter and trigger the effector mechanisms by which these cells damage myelin. For instance, macrophages have been identified as the major responders to CNS chemokines and producers of a number of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and toxic molecules known to promote demyelination (32,44,63,85,90,91,93,103). Interestingly, both the brains of MS patients and the brains of experimental animals with MS-like diseases contain activated transcription factors like NF-B (34, 40), STAT1 (35,37,40), and STAT6 (18,21,109), which can lead to enhanced expression of these inflammatory molecules. Based on the findings of our previous work, we propose that the modulation of inflammatory signaling via these transcriptional pathways may be deficient in the leukocytes, including the macrophages, of MS patients and that this deficiency is responsible for susceptibility to inflammatory demyelinating processes within the CNS.SHP-1 is a protein tyrosine phosphatase with two Src homology 2 domains which acts as a negative regulator of both innate and acquired immune cytokine signaling via NF-B (52, 67), STAT1 (29,68), and STAT6 (13,43,45,50). Mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (motheaten mice) display myelin de...

Recent studies in mice have demonstrated that the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of pro-inflammatory cytokine signaling, TLR signaling, and inflammatory gene expression. Furthermore, mice genetically lacking SHP-1 (me/me) display a profound susceptibility to inflammatory CNS demyelination relative to wild type mice. In particular, SHP-1 deficiency may act predominantly in inflammatory macrophages to increase CNS demyelination as SHP-1-deficient macrophages display co-expression of inflammatory effector molecules and increased demyelinating activity in me/me mice. Recently, we reported that PBMCs of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients have a deficiency in SHP-1 expression relative to normal control subjects indicating that SHP-1 deficiency may play a similar role in MS as to that seen in mice. Therefore, it became essential to examine the specific expression and function of SHP-1 in macrophages from MS patients. Herein, we document that macrophages of MS patients have deficient SHP-1 protein and mRNA expression relative to those of normal control subjects. To examine functional consequences of the lower SHP-1, the activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-κB was quantified and macrophages of MS patients showed increased activation of these transcription factors. In accordance with this observation, several STAT6-, STAT1-, and NF-κB-responsive genes that mediate inflammatory demyelination were increased in macrophages of MS patients following cytokine and TLR agonist stimulation. Supporting a direct role of SHP-1 deficiency in altered macrophage function, experimental depletion of SHP-1 in normal subject macrophages resulted in an increased STAT/NF-κB activation and increased inflammatory gene expression to levels seen in macrophages of MS patients. In conclusion, macrophages of MS patients display a deficiency of SHP-1 expression, heightened activation of STAT6, STAT1, and NF-κB and a corresponding inflammatory profile that may be important in controlling macrophage-mediated demyelination in MS.

Kallikrein 6 (Klk6) is a secreted serine protease that is elevated in active multiple sclerosis lesions and patient sera. To further evaluate the involvement of Klk6 in chronic progressive demyelinating disease, we determined its expression in the brain and spinal cord of SJL mice infected with Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) and assessed the effects of Klk6-neutralizing antibodies on disease progression. Klk6 RNA expression was elevated in the brain and spinal cord by 7 days post-infection (dpi). Thereafter, Klk6 expression persisted primarily in the spinal cord reaching a peak of 5-fold over controls at mid-chronic stages (60–120 dpi). Significant elevations in Klk6 RNA were also induced in splenocytes stimulated with viral capsid proteins in vitro and in activated THP-1 monocytes. Klk6-neutralizing antibodies reduced TMEV-driven brain and spinal cord pathology and DTH responses when examined at early chronic time points (40 dpi). Reductions in spinal cord pathology included a decrease in activated monocytes/microglia and reductions in the loss of myelin basic protein (MBP). By 180 dpi, pathology scores no longer differed between groups. These findings point to regulatory activities for Klk6 in the development and progression of CNS inflammation and demyelination that can be effectively targeted through the early chronic stages with neutralizing antibody.

Interferon-β is a current treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS). Interferon-β is thought to exert its therapeutic effects on MS by down-modulating the immune response by multiple potential pathways. Here, we document that treatment of MS patients with interferon β-1a (Rebif) results in a significant increase in the levels and function of the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 in PBMCs. SHP-1 is a crucial negative regulator of cytokine signaling, inflammatory gene expression, and CNS demyelination as evidenced in mice deficient in SHP-1. In order to examine the functional significance of SHP-1 induction in MS PBMCs, we analyzed the activity of proinflammatory signaling molecules STAT1, STAT6, and NF-κB, which are known SHP-1 targets. Interferon-β treatment in vivo resulted in decreased NF-κB and STAT6 activation and increased STAT1 activation. Further analysis in vitro showed that cultured PBMCs of MS patients and normal subjects had a significant SHP-1 induction following interferon-β treatment that correlated with decreased NF-κB and STAT6 activation. Most importantly, experimental depletion of SHP-1 in cultured PBMCs abolished the anti-inflammatory effects of interferon-β treatment, indicating that SHP-1 is a predominant mediator of interferon-β activity. In conclusion, interferon-β treatment upregulates SHP-1 expression resulting in decreased transcription factor activation and inflammatory gene expression important in MS pathogenesis.

Recent studies provide a functional link between kallikrein 6 (Klk6) and the development and progression of disease in multiple sclerosis patients and in its murine models. To evaluate the involvement of additional kallikrein family members, we compared Klk6 expression to 4 other kallikreins (Klk1, Klk7, Klk8 and Klk10) in the brain and spinal cord of mice infected with Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), an experimental model of progressive MS. The robust upregulation of Klk6 and Klk8 in the brain during the acute phase of viral encephalitis and in the spinal cord during disease development and progression points to their participation in inflammation, demyelination and progressive axon degeneration. More limited changes in Klk1, Klk7, and Klk10 were also observed. In addition, Klk1, Klk6, and Klk10 were dynamically regulated in T-cells in vitro as a recall response to viral antigen and in activated monocytes pointing to their activities in the development of adaptive and innate immune function. Together, these results point to overlapping and unique roles for multiple kallikreins in the development and progression of virus-mediated central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease, including activities in the development of the adaptive and innate immune response, in demyelination and in progressive axon degeneration.

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