Three empirical studies and one analysis of pre-existing data were performed to determine the everyday meanings of time, a major component of phenomenological analyses of human experience. To this end, participants in Studies 1 and 2 sorted time related words into groups having similar meanings, with these groups then evaluated by hierarchical clustering procedures. Results of Studies 1 and 2 produced similar clustering patterns suggesting it was possible to define the everyday meanings of time in terms of experiences of change and continuity, linear organization, tempo, and boundaries. Results of Study 3 indicated little or no effect on clustering patterns of time words when space words also were included in the set of items to be sorted. Concerns about the size and representativeness of the words used as stimuli in Studies 1, 2 and 3 led to an analysis of over 2,000 words falling under the general heading of Time in Roget's Thesaurus. Results of this analysis revealed that clusters comparable to those obtained in the other three studies also appeared in these data. These results were discussed in terms of their implications for the way in which "invisible" concepts such as time are thought about and used, particularly as related to figurative expression.
Many diversity and social justice-related training workshops are conducted on college campuses, in workplaces, and with community organizations each year, yet psychological practitioners and trainers have very little evidence for making decisions about the effectiveness of these trainings. It remains unclear, for instance, whether group specific interventions are necessary or whether general values clarification interventions generalize to specific marginalized groups. The current study used a quasiexperimental design to evaluate one general values clarification intervention and two group-specific interventions (focusing on lesbians and gay men). The interventions were conducted with three sorority and three fraternity groups on a college campus in the United States. The findings in this study suggest that a general values clarification intervention did not significantly increase group-specific positive social justice-related attitudes toward lesbians and gay men or more general social justice attitudes and advocacy. Findings also suggest that specific interventions focused on lesbians and gay men may be effective in facilitating group-specific positive social justice-related attitudes and behaviors. Both group-specific interventions were effective in increasing group specific positive attitudes while the general intervention was not. Men and women in the study responded to interventions differently, and men might need targeted interventions to create meaningful attitudinal and behavioral change. Findings are situated in a discussion of enhancing efforts to cultivate social justice on college campuses and in the general population.
Public Significance StatementThis study documented the utility of interventions to facilitate positive attitudes and social justice actions toward a specific marginalized group (lesbians and gay men) in groups with privileged identities (e.g., White, heterosexual identified). Findings suggest men and women responded to interventions differently, and men might need targeted interventions to create meaningful attitudinal and behavioral change.
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