Bacterial metabolism excretes protons during normal metabolic processes. The protons may be recycled by chemiosmosis, diffuse through the wall into the medium, or bind to cell surface constituents. Calculations by Koch (J. Theor. Biol. 120:73-84, 1986) have suggested that the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria may serve as a reservoir of protons during growth and metabolism, causing the wall to have a relatively low pH. That the cell wall may possess a pH lower than the surrounding medium has now been tested in Bacillus subtilis by several independent experiments. When cultures of B. subtilis were treated with the proton conductors azide and carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, the ceUs bound larger amounts of positively charged probes, including the chromium (Cr3+) and uranyl (UO22+) ions and were readily agglutinated by cationized ferritin. In contrast, the same proton conductors caused a decrease in the binding of the negatively charged probe chromate (Cro42-). Finally, when levansucrase was induced in cultures by the addition of sucrose, the enzyme was inactive as it traversed the wall during the first 0.7 to 1.0 generation of growth. The composite interpretation of the foregoing observations suggests that the wail is positively charged during metabolism, thereby decreasing its ability to complex with cations while increasing its ability to bind with anions. This may be one reason why some enzymes, such as autolysins, are unable to hydrolyze their substrata until they reach the wall periphery or are in the medium.During chemiosmosis, protons are extruded through the cytoplasmic membrane and acidify a narrow region near the membrane. The protons subsequently return to the cytoplasm by mechanisms that extract work in the form of ATP creation or powering transport events. While outside the cell membrane, the local pH may be reduced by 3 to 4 U (17). It can be shown by physicochemical calculations based on the Debye-Huckel and Gouy-Chapman theories that the pH lowering is only a distance of a few nanometers if no cations are being pumped into the cell, but because potassium is needed in quantity by the growing cell the pH may be lowered throughout the 25-nm thickness of the gram-positive wall. The first evidence that this had important consequences for the cell was the study of Jolliffe et al. (12) which showed the activities of wall autolysins of Bacillus subtilis were increased (i.e., no longer inhibited) when chemiosmosis was blocked by adding proton conductors. The present paper brings two additional kinds of evidence on the influence of proton extrusion on wall physiology. The first comes from experiments showing that when the cell is metabolizing and extruding protons, positively charged probes (Cr3+, UO22+, cationized ferritin) display a weak affinity for the wall, whereas a negatively charged probe (CrO42-) binds the bacteria with a relatively high affinity. In contrast, when the proton motive force is dissipated, the positively charged probes readily complex with the cell surface, whereas the nega...
Bacillus subtilis 168 is a gram-positive bacterium whose cell wall contains the highly electronegative polymers peptidoglycan (chemotype Aly) and glycerol-based teichoic acid to produce a surface with a net negative charge with high metal binding capacity. During metabolism, a membrane-induced proton motive force continuously pumps protons into the wall fabric. As a result, a competition between protons and metal ions for anionic wall sites occurs, and less metal is bound in living cells than in nonliving cells or those in which the plasma membrane has been uncoupled. This was shown by using two metallic ions, UO22' and SC3+, on control cells, cells uncoupled with either carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone or NaN3, or cells killed by gamma radiation. Transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma atomic-emission spectroscopy showed that more metal was retained in the walls of nonliving cells and those with deenergized membranes than in their living counterparts.
SummaryFormin proteins are nucleators of actin filaments and regulators of the microtubule cytoskeleton. As such, they play important roles in the development of yeast and other fungi. We show here that AgBnr2, a homologue of the ScBnr1 formin from the filamentous fungus Ashbya gossypii, localizes to the spindle pole body (SPB), the fungal analogue of the centrosome of metazoans. This protein plays an important role in the development of the typical needleshaped spores of A. gossypii, as suggested by several findings. First, downregulation of AgBNR2 causes defects in sporangium formation and a decrease in the total spore number. Second, a fusion of AgBNR2 to GFP that is driven by the native AgBNR2 promoter is only visible in sporangia. Third, AgBnr2 interacts with a AgSpo21, a sporulationspecific component of the SPB. Furthermore, we provide evidence that AgBnr2 might nucleate actin cables, which are connected to SPBs during sporulation. Our findings add to our understanding of fungal sporulation, particularly the formation of spores with a complex, elongated morphology, and provide novel insights into formin function.
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