Biomolecular condensates are micron-scale compartments in eukaryotic cells that lack surrounding membranes but function to concentrate proteins and nucleic acids. These condensates are involved in diverse processes, including RNA metabolism, ribosome biogenesis, the DNA damage response and signal transduction. Recent studies have shown that liquid-liquid phase separation driven by multivalent macromolecular interactions is an important organizing principle for biomolecular condensates. With this physical framework, it is now possible to explain how the assembly, composition, physical properties and biochemical and cellular functions of these important structures are regulated.

Cells are organized on length scales ranging from Angstroms to microns. However, the mechanisms by which Angstrom-scale molecular properties are translated to micron-scale macroscopic properties are not well understood. Here we show that interactions between diverse, synthetic multivalent macromolecules (including multi-domain proteins and RNA) produce sharp, liquid-liquid demixing phase separations, generating micron-sized liquid droplets in aqueous solution. This macroscopic transition corresponds to a molecular transition between small complexes and large, dynamic supramolecular polymers. The concentrations needed for phase transition are directly related to valency of the interacting species. In the case of the actin regulatory protein, neuronal Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome Protein (N-WASP) interacting with its established biological partners Nck and phosphorylated nephrin1, the phase transition corresponds to a sharp increase in activity toward the actin nucleation factor, Arp2/3 complex. The transition is governed by the degree of phosphorylation of nephrin, explaining how this property of the system can be controlled to regulatory effect by kinases. The widespread occurrence of multivalent systems suggests that phase transitions are likely used to spatially organize and biochemically regulate information throughout biology.

Eukaryotic cells possess numerous dynamic membrane-less organelles, RNP granules, enriched in RNA and RNA binding proteins containing disordered regions. We demonstrate that the disordered regions of key RNP granule components, and the full-length granule protein hnRNPA1, can phase separate in vitro, producing dynamic liquid droplets. Phase separation is promoted by low salt concentrations or RNA. Over time, the droplets mature to more stable states, as assessed by slowed fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and resistance to salt. Maturation often coincides with formation of fibrous structures. Different disordered domains can co-assemble into phase-separated droplets. These biophysical properties demonstrate a plausible mechanism by which interactions between disordered regions, coupled with RNA binding, could contribute to RNP granule assembly in vivo through promoting phase separation. Progression from dynamic liquids to stable fibers may be regulated to produce cellular structures with diverse physiochemical properties and functions. Misregulation could contribute to diseases involving aberrant RNA granules.