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This paper reviews the upward communication literature and identifies factors which facilitate or impede upward information flow in organizations. Studies are classified into the following categories: (1) subordinate characteristics, (2) superior characteristics, (3) the superior/subordinate relationship, (4) message characteristics, and (5) structural characteristics. A model is presented to summarize factors associated with the frequency, accuracy, and utility of upward communication. The model is integrated into a broader information processing framework which emphasizes the role of upward communication in managerial and unit effectiveness. A number of directions for future research on upward information flow are suggested.

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This paper is based on a research process used by social anthropologists while investigating a new cultural phenomenon. It involves walking the streets, peeking around corners, observing practices, conducting indepth interviews, recording oral histories, and analyzing a rich description of a complex human process. This methodology puts the researcher much closer to realworld conditions, and sets the stage for future work. The conclusions in this paper are based on several hundred oral histories of successful business founders. The entrepreneurs include male and female business founders from various ethnic backgrounds who operate regional, national and international companies in the full spectrum of industries: manufacturing, high tech, petrochemical, transportation, wholesale, retail, service, health care, real estate, entertainment, restaurants, food service, and the arts. The companies have moved beyond the sole proprietorship stage: they are expanding operations, creating jobs, hiring employees, increasing revenue, paying taxes, and gaining market share in their industry. PREPARATION: Live on the Boundary The vast majority of the successful entrepreneurs that were interviewed have previously worked in the industry in which they started their business. Dimo Domov researched a large database of entrepreneurs and found that industry experience increases the confidence