Much confusion exists in the Englishlanguage literature on plant invasions concerning

Aim This study appraises historical fire regimes for Californian mixed‐conifer forests of the Sierra San Pedro Mártir (SSPM). The SSPM represents the last remaining mixed‐conifer forest along the Pacific coast still subject to uncontrolled, periodic ground fire. Location The SSPM is a north–south trending fault bound range, centred on 31°N latitude, 100 km SE of Ensenada, Baja California. Methods We surveyed forests for composition, population structure, and historical dynamics both spatially and temporally over the past 65 years using repeat aerial photographs and ground sampling. Fire perimeter history was reconstructed based on time‐series aerial photographs dating from 1942 to 1991 and interpretable back to 1925. A total of 256 1‐ha sites randomly selected from aerial photographs were examined along a chronosequence for density and cover of canopy trees, density of snags and downed logs, and cover of non‐conifer trees and shrubs. Twenty‐four stands were sampled on‐the‐ground by a point‐centred quarter method which yielded data on tree density, basal area, frequency, importance value, and shrub and herb cover. Results Forests experience moderately intense understory fires that range in size to 6400 ha, as well as numerous smaller, low intensity burns with low cumulative spatial extent. SSPM forests average 25–45% cover and 65–145 trees per ha. Sapling densities were two to three times that of overstory trees. Size‐age distributions of trees ≥ 4 cm dbh indicate multi‐age stands with steady‐state dynamics. Stands are similar to Californian mixed conifer forests prior to the imposition of fire suppression policy. Livestock grazing does not appear to be suppressing conifer regeneration. Main conclusions Our spatially‐based reconstruction shows the open forest structure in SSPM to be a product of infrequent, intense surface fires with fire rotation periods of 52 years, rather than frequent, low intensity fires at intervals of 4–20 years proposed from California fire‐scar dendrochronology (FSD) studies. Ground fires in SSPM were intense enough to kill pole‐size trees and a significant number of overstory trees. We attribute long fire intervals to the gradual build‐up of subcontinuous shrub cover, conifer recruitment and litter accumulation. Differences from photo interpretation and FSD estimates are due to assumptions made with respect to site‐based (point) sampling of fire, and nonfractal fire intensities along fire size frequency distributions. Fire return intervals determined by FSD give undue importance to local burns which collectively use up little fuel, cover little area, and have little demographic impact on forests.

We revisited 68 plots of forest vegetation in the San Bernardino Mountains that had been quantitatively described in 1929‐1935, from the California Vegetation Type Map (VTM) Survey. By using the same sampling methods, we documented changes—over approximately 60 years and during a period of fire suppression management—in tree density by both species and size class. In general, we found increasing stand densities, a transformation from old‐growth age structure to young growth, and a compositional shift from Pinus ponderosa and P. jeffreyi to Abies concolor and Calocedrus decurrens. Density of trees of more than 12 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) increased by 79%, including three to ten‐fold increases in the youngest cohorts 12–66 cm dbh. The magnitude of change depended upon initial forest composition and local annual precipitation. Monotypic stands of P. jeffreyi or those initially dominated by Abies concolor showed the least change in species composition; the most xeric stands of P. jeffreyi showed the least gain in density; and mesic mixed P. ponderosa stands showed the most dramatic change in composition and density. We compared these data to records of past and present forests in the Sierra Nevada and found parallel trends, but magnified by the increased precipitation of the Sierra Nevada. We also compared VTM data from the San Bernardino Mountains to mixed conifer forests in the Sierra San Pedro Martir of Baja California. These Mexican sites and forests are ecologically similar to those in California, but they still experience unmanaged fire regimes. Californian forests of 60 years ago are remarkably similar to modern forests in the Sierra San Pedro Martir. Thus, we conclude that forest changes in the San Bernardino Mountains are primarily due to lengthening fire intervals. Forest changes as a result of fire suppression have important conservation consequences for bird species diversity in general and for Spotted Owl and Neotropical migrants in particular.

Germination requirements of Larrea divaricata Cav. were studied in the laboratory using seed collected at 34 United States sites. Collection sites were grouped into three desert regions (Chihuahuan, Sonoran, Mojave) of increasing aridity from east to west. Optimum laboratory conditions for germination were: darkness, 23°C, leaching the mericarps with running water, wetting and drying cycles, exposure to cold temperatures prior to sowing, and maintaining the medium about the seeds near—zero in osmotic pressure and low in NaC1. Exposure of dry seeds to warm temperatures (37—71°C) prior to sowing resulted in marked reduction of germination. Maximum root growth was obtained at 29°C in a slightly acidic medium low in NaC1 and near—zero in osmotic pressure. There were no regional differences in germination behavior. Due to seed abortion, non—germination, and mortality over 6 months' growth, only 20 seedlings survive for every 100 mericarps sown under optimum conditions in the greenhouse. It is unlikely that large—scale germination and survival occur often in nature.

Theoretical and empirical studies have long suggested that stability and complexity are intimately related, but evidence from long-lived systems at large scales is lacking. Stability can either be driven by complex species interactions, or it can be driven by the presence/absence and abundance of a species best able to perform a specific ecosystem function. We use 64 years of stand productivity measures in forest systems composed of four dominant conifer tree species to contrast the effect of species richness and abundance on three stability measures. To perform this contrast, we measured the annual growth increments of > 900 trees in mixed and pure forest stands to test three hypotheses: increased species richness will (1) decrease stand variance, (2) increase stand resistance to drought events, and (3) increase stand resilience to drought events. In each case, the alternate hypothesis was that species richness had no effect, but that species composition and abundance within a stand drove variance, resistance, and resilience. In pure stands, the four species demonstrated significant differences in productivity, and in their resistance and resilience to drought events. The two pine species were the most drought resistant and resilient, whereas mountain hemlock was the least resistant and resilient, and red fir was intermediate. For community measures we found a moderately significant (P = 0.08) increase in the community coefficient of variation and a significant (P = 0.03) increase in resilience with increased species richness, but no significant relationship between species richness and community resistance, though the variance in community resistance to drought decreased with species richness. Community resistance to drought was significantly (P = 0.001) correlated to the relative abundance of lodgepole pine, the most resistant species. We propose that resistance is driven by competition for a single limiting resource, with negative diversity effects. In contrast resilience measures the capacity of communities to partition resources in the absence of a single limiting resource, demonstrating positive diversity effects.

Sierra Nevada forests have high understory species richness yet we do not know which site factors influence herb and shrub distribution or abundance. We examined the understory of an old-growth mixed-conifer Sierran forest and its distribution in relation to microsite conditions. The forest has high species richness (98 species sampled), most of which are herbs with sparse cover and relatively equal abundance. Shrub cover is highly concentrated in discrete patches. Using overstory tree cover and microsite environmental conditions, four habitats were identified; tree cluster, partial canopy, gap, and rock/shallow soil. Herb and shrub species were strongly linked with habitats. Soil moisture, litter depth and diffuse light were the most significant environmental gradients influencing understory plant distribution. Herb cover was most strongly influenced by soil moisture. Shrub cover is associated with more diffuse light, less direct light, and sites with lower soil moisture. Herb richness is most affected by conditions which influence soil moisture. Richness is positively correlated with litter depth, and negatively correlated with direct light and shrub cover. Disturbance or management practices which change forest floor conditions, shallow soil moisture and direct light are likely to have the strongest effect on Sierran understory abundance and richness.

Aim  To identify the influence of interannual and interdecadal climate variation on the occurrence and extent of fires in montane conifer forests of north‐western Mexico. Location  This study was conducted in Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi Grev. & Balf.)‐dominated mixed‐conifer forests in the central and northern plateau of the Sierra San Pedro Mártir, Baja California, Mexico. Methods  Fire occurrence was reconstructed for 12 dispersed sites for a 290‐year period (1700–1990) from cross‐dated fire‐scarred samples extracted from live trees, snags and logs. Superposed epoch analysis was used to examine the relationships of tree‐ring reconstructions of drought, the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) with fire occurrence and extent. Results  Years with no recorded fire scars were wetter than average. In contrast, years of widespread fires were dry and associated with phase changes of the PDO, usually from positive (warm) to negative (cold). The influence of the PDO was most evident during the La Niña phase of the ENSO. Widespread fires were also associated with warm/wet conditions 5 years before the fire. We hypothesize that the 5‐year lag between warm/wet conditions and widespread fires may be associated with the time necessary to build up sufficient quantity and continuity of needle litter to support widespread fires. Two periods of unusually high fire activity (1770–1800 and 1920–1950) were each followed by several decades of unusually low fire activity. The switch in each case was associated with strong phase changes in both PDO and ENSO. Main conclusions  Climate strongly influences fire regimes in the mountains of north‐western Mexico. Wet/warm years are associated with little fire activity. However, these years may contribute to subsequent fire years by encouraging the production of sufficient needle litter to support more widespread fires that occur in dry/cool years.

Measurements of salt spray were made weekly for 15 spring weeks with a grid of 50 traps in a 32 m longx24m wide plot of beach vegetation along the central California coast. The trap centers were 14 cm above the ground, the traps could swivel to continuously face the wind, and trap area (16 cm) was small in order to minimally affect wind flow. Regressions or analyses of variance of wind speed and direction, rainfall, tide level, plot topography, and plant distribution were performed against salt spray. The period was lengthy enough to include a wide range of climatic conditions and the time of maximum plant growth and flowering. An ecologically and statistically significant salt spray gradient, which correlated with distance back from, and elevation above, mean tide line, was revealed. Overall, the front-most, lowest traps received 4-5 times the spray that the back-most, highest traps received. Weeks with moderate wind and spray (7-14 kph, in contrast to weeks with lower or higher wind speed) resulted in even steeper gradients, up to 20-fold. The highest trap reading for any one week was 70 mg salt deposited dm of trap surface day. Plant distribution correlated with salts spray and there is some evidence that it is a functional relationship. Attempts were made to extrapolate from the overall mean trap load of 13 mg dm day down to the leaf surface just below the traps, and to data from salt spray studies with larger traps on the Atlantic Coast. It appears that the salt spray load just above the beach plant canopy ranges from less than 1 to nearly 200 mg dm vertical trap surface day, depending on trap height, distance back from tide line, and wind speed. The plant canopy and sand surface receive an order of magnitude less spray than that received by vertical traps.