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The structure of local government in England and Wales is evaluated on the basis of public-choice theories concerning structural effects on performance. The concepts of fragmentation and concentration are applied to changes in the pattern of top-tier units since 1831. For most of this period the structure of this set of authorities became much less fragmented and more concentrated. Public-choice theory suggests that the net effect of these changes is likely to have been a reduction in the allocative and technical efficiency of service provision.

Discrete trials were introduced into discriminated leverpress avoidance learning in rats by employing a retractable lever. The effects of CS-UCS and inter-trial (III) intervals were investigated using both retractable and non-retractable levers. The retractable lever groups outperformed the nonretractable lever groups by a highly significant margin early in training but this difference disappeared within IS!) trials. Similarly, III and CS-UCS intervals affected performance only in the "first 100 trials.