Optogenetics allows rapid, temporally specific control of neuronal activity via targeted expression and activation of light-sensitive proteins. Implementation typically requires remote light sources and fiber-optic delivery schemes that impose significant physical constraints on natural behaviors. In this report we bypass these limitations using novel technologies that combine thin, mechanically soft neural interfaces with fully implantable, stretchable wireless radio power and control systems. The resulting devices achieve optogenetic modulation of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. This is demonstrated with two form factors; stretchable film appliques that interface directly with peripheral nerves, and flexible filaments that insert into the narrow confines of the spinal epidural space. These soft, thin devices are minimally invasive, and histological tests suggest they can be used in chronic studies. We demonstrate the power of this technology by modulating peripheral and spinal pain circuitry, providing evidence for the potential widespread use of these devices in research and future clinical applications of optogenetics outside the brain.

The central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) has been identified as a site of nociceptive processing important for sensitization induced by peripheral injury. However, the cellular signaling components underlying this function remain unknown. Here, we identify metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) as an integral component of nociceptive processing in the CeA. Pharmacological activation of mGluRs with (R,S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine (DHPG) in the CeA of mice is sufficient to induce peripheral hypersensitivity in the absence of injury. DHPG-induced peripheral hypersensitivity is reduced via pharmacological blockade of mGluR5 or genetic disruption of mGluR5. Furthermore, pharmacological blockade or conditional deletion of mGluR5 in the CeA abrogates inflammation-induced hypersensitivity, demonstrating the necessity of mGluR5 in CeA-mediated pain modulation. Moreover, we demonstrate that phosphorylation of extracellular-signal regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) is downstream of mGluR5 activation in the CeA and is necessary for the full expression of peripheral inflammation-induced behavioral sensitization. Finally, we present evidence of right hemispheric lateralization of mGluR5 modulation of amygdalar nociceptive processing. We demonstrate that unilateral pharmacological activation of mGluR5 in the CeA produces distinct behavioral responses depending on whether the right or left amygdala is injected. We also demonstrate significantly higher levels of mGluR5 expression in the right amygdala compared with the left under baseline conditions, suggesting a potential mechanism for right hemispheric lateralization of amygdala function in pain processing. Together, these results establish an integral role for mGluR5 and ERK1/2 in nociceptive processing in the CeA.

Monitoring regional tissue oxygenation in animal models and potentially in human subjects can yield insights into the underlying mechanisms of local O2-mediated physiological processes and provide diagnostic and therapeutic guidance for relevant disease states. Existing technologies for tissue oxygenation assessments involve some combination of disadvantages in requirements for physical tethers, anesthetics, and special apparatus, often with confounding effects on the natural behaviors of test subjects. This work introduces an entirely wireless and fully implantable platform incorporating (i) microscale optoelectronics for continuous sensing of local hemoglobin dynamics and (ii) advanced designs in continuous, wireless power delivery and data output for tether-free operation. These features support in vivo, highly localized tissue oximetry at sites of interest, including deep brain regions of mice, on untethered, awake animal models. The results create many opportunities for studying various O2-mediated processes in naturally behaving subjects, with implications in biomedical research and clinical practice.

Background: A number of prostaglandins (PGs) sensitize dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and contribute to inflammatory hyperalgesia by signaling through specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). One mechanism whereby PGs sensitize these neurons is through modulation of "thermoTRPs," a subset of ion channels activated by temperature belonging to the Transient Receptor Potential ion channel superfamily. Acrid, electrophilic chemicals including cinnamaldehyde (CA) and allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), derivatives of cinnamon and mustard oil respectively, activate thermoTRP member TRPA1 via direct modification of channel cysteine residues.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5) has been demonstrated to play a role in the modulation of numerous nociceptive modalities. When administered via peripheral, intrathecal, or systemic routes, mGlu5 antagonists have analgesic properties in a variety of preclinical pain models. Despite a wealth of data supporting the use of mGlu5 antagonists to treat pain, studies have been limited to preclinical animal models due to a lack of mGlu5 antagonists that are approved for use in humans. It has been demonstrated previously that fenobam [N-(3-chlorophenyl)-NЈ-(4,5-dihydro-1-methyl-4-oxo-1H-imidazole-2-yl)urea], an anxiolytic shown to be safe and effective in human trials, is a selective and potent noncompetitive antagonist of mGlu5 (J Pharmacol Exp Ther 315:711-721, 2005). Here, we report a series of studies aimed at testing whether fenobam, similar to the prototypical mGlu5 antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP), has analgesic properties in mice. We show that fenobam reduces formalininduced pain behaviors and relieves established inflammationinduced thermal hypersensitivity in mice. Similar results were seen with MPEP. Administration of fenobam resulted in an increase in locomotor activity in the open-field task but did not impair performance on the accelerating Rotarod. Analysis of brain and plasma fenobam levels indicated that fenobam is rapidly concentrated in brain after intraperitoneal administration in mice but is essentially cleared from circulation within 1 h after injection. Fenobam had no analgesic effect in mGlu5 knockout mice, whereas the prototypical antagonist MPEP retained significant analgesic efficacy in mGlu5 knockouts. These results demonstrate that fenobam is analgesic in mice and has an improved in vivo selectivity for mGlu5 over MPEP.