The empirical literature on charismatic or transformational leadership demonstrates that such leadership has profound effects on followers. However, while several versions of charismatic leadership theory predict such effects, none of them explains the process by which these effects are achieved. In this paper we seek to advance leadership theory by addressing this fundamental problem. We offer a self-concept based motivational theory to explain the process by which charismatic leader behaviors cause profound transformational effects on followers. The theory presents the argument that charismatic leadership has its effects by strongly engaging followers' self-concepts in the interest of the mission articulated by the leader. We derive from this theory testable propositions about (a) the behavior of charismatic leaders and their effects on followers, (b) the role of followers' values and orientations in the charismatic relationship, and (c) some of the organizational conditions that favor the emergence and effectiveness of charismatic leaders.

SummaryThis paper compares contemporary career theory with the theory applied in recent career success research. The research makes inconsistent use of career theory, and in particular neglects the interdependence of the objective and subjective careers, and 'boundaryless career' issues of inter-organizational mobility and extra-organizational support. The paper offers new guidelines for bringing about a rapprochement between career theory and career success research. These guidelines cover adequacy of research designs, further dimensions of career success, broader peer group comparisons, deeper investigation of the subjectively driven person, and seeing new connections between boundaryless career theory and career success research.

This paper proposes a competency-based view of careers, derived from competencybased models of employcr firms. The implications for boundaryless careers are cxplored by reference to changing organizational. occupational and industry community contexts. All of these contexts are seen as likely to promote boundaryless career behaviors. Future research possibilities for each of three career competencies, and for interdependence among the competencies. are briefly examined.We are indebted to Suzyn Ornstein, Denise Rousseau. and three anonymous reviewers of the Juurnid q/ 0rguni:itfiwiuI &huvior for helpful comments on earlier drafts ofthis paper.' An employment setting, as viewed in this paper. is any setting with independent authority to engage in employment contracts. This can either mean an independent firm or a business unit o f a larger firm where employment responsibility is decentralized. The latter meaning can be linked to General Electric head Jack Welch's vision of the 'boundaryless organization'. that is of multiple high-autonomy employment settings (Hirschhorn and Gilmore. 1992). Moves both within and beyond these settings would represent houndaryless career behavior. (Miles and Snow, 1986;Nohria and Eccles, 1992). One such set of ideas focuses on the cultivation of firm-specific, rather than generic, competencies. This competency-based view of the firm emphasizes how collective employee competencies link to a firm's past and present activities, and in turn extend to future strategic possibilities (e.g. Grant, 1991; Nelson and Winter, 1982;Prahalad and Hamel, 1990;Winter, 1986; Hall, 1992).An emerging theme behind the competency-based view of the firm is a retreat from old ideas about vertical coordination. That is, instead of relying on centralized or corporate decisionmaking, lirms or business units are seen to benefit from relatively uninhibited interaction with partners. suppliers and customers. This alternative, horizontal model of coordination is seen as better accommodating each firm's unique and shifting interests (Quinn, 1992). However, current writings in career and human resource managementincluding those in 'strategic human resource management' (e.g. Schuler, 1992) -persist in emphasizing a vertically-coordinated approach. In this paper we challenge the apparent inconsistency between the firm-centered and person-centered levels of analysis. We do so by arguing that competency accumulation at the level of the person is better served by boundaryless career principles. In turn, we argue that competency accumulation through boundaryless careers can make a critical contribution to the unfolding competencies of firms and their host industries. New kinds of research will be needed if this contribution is to be better understood.This paper is organized as follows. First, we derive a view of career competencies inspired by the competency-based view of the firm. Next, we explore organizational, occupational, and industry community contexts to suggest how career competencies unfold, and with what boundar...

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