| The steep rise in music downloading over CD sales has created a major shift in the music industry away from physical media formats and towards online products and services. Music is one of the most popular types of online information and there are now hundreds of music streaming and download services operating on the World-Wide Web.Some of the music collections available are approaching the scale of ten million tracks and this has posed a major challenge for searching, retrieving, and organizing music content.Research efforts in music information retrieval have involved experts from music perception, cognition, musicology, engineering, and computer science engaged in truly interdisciplinary activity that has resulted in many proposed algorithmic and methodological solutions to music search using content-based methods. This paper outlines the problems of content-based music information retrieval and explores the state-of-the-art methods using audio cues (e.g., query by humming, audio fingerprinting, content-based music retrieval) and other cues (e.g., music notation and symbolic representation), and identifies some of the major challenges for the coming years.
Music moves us. Its kinetic power is the foundation of human behaviors as diverse as dance, romance, lullabies, and the military march. Despite its significance, the music-movement relationship is poorly understood. We present an empirical method for testing whether music and movement share a common structure that affords equivalent and universal emotional expressions. Our method uses a computer program that can generate matching examples of music and movement from a single set of features: rate, jitter (regularity of rate), direction, step size, and dissonance/visual spikiness. We applied our method in two experiments, one in the United States and another in an isolated tribal village in Cambodia. These experiments revealed three things: (i) each emotion was represented by a unique combination of features, (ii) each combination expressed the same emotion in both music and movement, and (iii) this common structure between music and movement was evident within and across cultures.cross-cultural | cross-modal M usic moves us, literally. All human cultures dance to music and music's kinetic faculty is exploited in everything from military marches and political rallies to social gatherings and romance. This cross-modal relationship is so fundamental that in many languages the words for music and dance are often interchangeable, if not the same (1). We speak of music "moving" us and we describe emotions themselves with music and movement words like "bouncy" and "upbeat" (2). Despite its centrality to human experience, an explanation for the music-movement link has been elusive. Here we offer empirical evidence that sheds new light on this ancient marriage: music and movement share a dynamic structure.A shared structure is consistent with several findings from research with infants. It is now well established that very young infants-even neonates (3)-are predisposed to group metrically regular, auditory events similarly to adults (4, 5). Moreover, infants also infer meter from movement. In one study, 7-mo-old infants were bounced in duple or triple meter while listening to an ambiguous rhythm pattern (6). When hearing the same pattern later without movement, infants preferred the pattern with intensity (auditory) accents that matched the particular metric pattern at which they were previously bounced. Thus, the perception of a "beat," established by movement or by music, transfers across modalities. Infant preferences suggest that perceptual correspondences between music and movement, at least for beat perception, are predisposed and therefore likely universal. By definition, however, infant studies do not examine whether such predispositions survive into adulthood after protracted exposure to culture-specific influences. For this reason, adult cross-cultural research provides important complimentary evidence for universality.Previous research suggests that several musical features are universal. Most of these features are low-level structural properties, such as the use of regular rhythms, preference for small-intege...
Activity-dependent plasticity appears to play an important role in the modification of neurons and neural circuits that occurs during development and learning. Plasticity is also essential for the maintenance of stable patterns of activity in the face of variable environmental and internal conditions. Previous theoretical and experimental results suggest that neurons stabilize their activity by altering the number or characteristics of ion channels to regulate their intrinsic electrical properties. We present both experimental and modeling evidence to show that activity-dependent regulation of conductances, operating at the level of individual neurons, can also stabilize network activity. These results indicate that the stomatogastric ganglion of the crab can generate a characteristic rhythmic pattern of activity in two fundamentally different modes of operation. In one mode, the rhythm is strictly conditional on the presence of neuromodulatory afferents from adjacent ganglia. In the other, it is independent of neuromodulatory input but relies on newly developed intrinsic properties of the component neurons.
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