ESX (ESAT-6 system) export systems play diverse roles across mycobacterial species. Interestingly, genetic disruption of ESX systems in different species does not result in an accumulation of protein substrates in the mycobacterial cell. However, the mechanisms underlying this observation are elusive. We hypothesized that the levels of ESX substrates were regulated by a feedback-control mechanism, linking the levels of substrates to the secretory status of ESX systems. To test this hypothesis, we used a combination of genetic, transcriptomic, and proteomic approaches to define export-dependent mechanisms regulating the levels of ESX-1 substrates in WhiB6 is a transcription factor that regulates expression of genes encoding ESX-1 substrates. We found that, in the absence of the genes encoding conserved membrane components of the ESX-1 system, the expression of the gene and genes encoding ESX-1 substrates were reduced. Accordingly, the levels of ESX-1 substrates were decreased, and WhiB6 was not detected in strains lacking genes encoding ESX-1 components. We demonstrated that, in the absence of EccCb, a conserved ESX-1 component, substrate gene expression was restored by constitutive, but not native, expression of the gene. Finally, we found that the loss of WhiB6 resulted in a virulent strain with reduced ESX-1 secretion. Together, our findings demonstrate that the levels of ESX-1 substrates in are fine-tuned by negative feedback control, linking the expression of the gene to the presence, not the functionality, of the ESX-1 membrane complex.

High-resolution three-dimensional structures of essential Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) proteins provide templates for TB drug design, but are available for only a small fraction of the Mtb proteome. Here we evaluate an intra-genus “homolog-rescue” strategy to increase the structural information available for TB drug discovery by using mycobacterial homologs with conserved active sites. Of 179 potential TB drug targets selected for x-ray structure determination, only 16 yielded a crystal structure. By adding 1675 homologs from nine other mycobacterial species to the pipeline, structures representing an additional 52 otherwise intractable targets were solved. To determine whether these homolog structures would be useful surrogates in TB drug design, we compared the active sites of 106 pairs of Mtb and non-TB mycobacterial (NTM) enzyme homologs with experimentally determined structures, using three metrics of active site similarity, including superposition of continuous pharmacophoric property distributions. Pair-wise structural comparisons revealed that 19/22 pairs with >55% overall sequence identity had active site Cα RMSD <1Å, >85% side chain identity, and ≥80% PSAPF (similarity based on pharmacophoric properties) indicating highly conserved active site shape and chemistry. Applying these results to the 52 NTM structures described above, 41 shared >55% sequence identity with the Mtb target, thus increasing the effective structural coverage of the 179 Mtb targets over three-fold (from 9% to 32%). The utility of these structures in TB drug design can be tested by designing inhibitors using the homolog structure and assaying the cognate Mtb enzyme; a promising test case, Mtb cytidylate kinase, is described. The homolog-rescue strategy evaluated here for TB is also generalizable to drug targets for other diseases.

Pathogenic mycobacteria encounter multiple environments during macrophage infection. Temporally, the bacteria are engulfed into the phagosome, lyse the phagosomal membrane, and interact with the cytosol before spreading to another cell. Virulence factors secreted by the mycobacterial ESX-1 (ESAT-6-system-1) secretion system mediate the essential transition from the phagosome to the cytosol. It was recently discovered that the ESX-1 system also regulates mycobacterial gene expression in Mycobacterium marinum (R. E. Bosserman, T. T. Nguyen, K. G. Sanchez, A. E. Chirakos, et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:E10772–E10781, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710167114), a nontuberculous mycobacterial pathogen, and in the human-pathogenic species M. tuberculosis (A. M. Abdallah, E. M. Weerdenburg, Q. Guan, R. Ummels, et al., PLoS One 14:e0211003, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211003). It is not known how the ESX-1 system regulates gene expression. Here, we identify the first transcription factor required for the ESX-1-dependent transcriptional response in pathogenic mycobacteria. We demonstrate that the gene divergently transcribed from the whiB6 gene and adjacent to the ESX-1 locus in mycobacterial pathogens encodes a conserved transcription factor (MMAR_5438, Rv3863, now espM). We prove that EspM from both M. marinum and M. tuberculosis directly and specifically binds the whiB6-espM intergenic region. We show that EspM is required for ESX-1-dependent repression of whiB6 expression and for the regulation of ESX-1-associated gene expression. Finally, we demonstrate that EspM functions to fine-tune ESX-1 activity in M. marinum. Taking the data together, this report extends the esx-1 locus, defines a conserved regulator of the ESX-1 virulence pathway, and begins to elucidate how the ESX-1 system regulates gene expression. IMPORTANCE Mycobacterial pathogens use the ESX-1 system to transport protein substrates that mediate essential interactions with the host during infection. We previously demonstrated that in addition to transporting proteins, the ESX-1 secretion system regulates gene expression. Here, we identify a conserved transcription factor that regulates gene expression in response to the ESX-1 system. We demonstrate that this transcription factor is functionally conserved in M. marinum, a pathogen of ectothermic animals; M. tuberculosis, the human-pathogenic species that causes tuberculosis; and M. smegmatis, a nonpathogenic mycobacterial species. These findings provide the first mechanistic insight into how the ESX-1 system elicits a transcriptional response, a function of this protein transport system that was previously unknown.

The ESX-1 (ESAT-6-system-1) system and the protein substrates it transports are essential for mycobacterial pathogenesis. The precise ways that ESX-1 substrates contribute to virulence remains unknown. Several known ESX-1 substrates are also required for the secretion of other proteins. We used a proteo-genetic approach to construct high-resolution dependency relationships for the roles of individual ESX-1 substrates in secretion and virulence in Mycobacterium marinum, a pathogen of humans and animals. Characterizing a collection of M. marinum strains with in-frame deletions in each of the known ESX-1 substrate genes and the corresponding complementation strains, we demonstrate that ESX-1 substrates are differentially required for ESX-1 activity and for virulence. Using isobaric-tagged proteomics, we quantified the degree of requirement of each substrate on protein secretion. We conclusively defined distinct contributions of ESX-1 substrates in protein secretion. Our data reveal a hierarchy of ESX-1 substrate secretion, which supports a model for the composition of the extracytoplasmic ESX-1 secretory machinery. Overall, our proteo-genetic analysis demonstrates discrete roles for ESX-1 substrates in ESX-1 function and secretion in M. marinum.

Mycobacterial pathogens use the ESAT-6 system 1 (Esx-1) exporter to promote virulence. Previously, we used gene disruption and complementation to conclude that the MMAR_0039 gene in Mycobacterium marinum is required to promote Esx-1 export. Here we applied molecular genetics, proteomics, and wholegenome sequencing to demonstrate that the MMAR_0039 gene is not required for Esx-1 secretion or virulence. These findings suggest that we initially observed an indirect mechanism of genetic complementation. We identified a spontaneous nonsense mutation in a known Esx-1-associated gene which causes a loss of Esx-1 activity. We show that the Esx-1 function was restored by nonsense suppression. Moreover, we identified a polar mutation in the ppsC gene which reduced cellular impermeability but did not impact cytotoxicity in macrophages. Our studies reveal insight into Esx-1 export, nonsense suppression, and cell envelope lipid biogenesis.

PDB References: MyulA.00906.a, 3qi6; 3qhx.Cystathionine -synthase (CGS) is a transulfurication enzyme that catalyzes the first specific step in l-methionine biosynthesis by the reaction of O 4 -succinyll-homoserine and l-cysteine to produce l-cystathionine and succinate. Controlling the first step in l-methionine biosythesis, CGS is an excellent potential drug target. Mycobacterium ulcerans is a slow-growing mycobacterium that is the third most common form of mycobacterial infection, mainly infecting people in Africa, Australia and Southeast Asia. Infected patients display a variety of skin ailments ranging from indolent non-ulcerated lesions as well as ulcerated lesions. Here, the crystal structure of CGS from M. ulcerans covalently linked to the cofactor pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) is reported at 1.9 Å resolution. A second structure contains PLP as well as a highly ordered HEPES molecule in the active site acting as a pseudo-ligand. These results present the first structure of a CGS from a mycobacterium and allow comparison with other CGS enzymes. This is also the first structure reported from the pathogen M. ulcerans.

Leishmania parasites are responsible for important neglected diseases in humans and animals, ranging from self-healing cutaneous lesions to fatal visceral manifestations. During the infectious cycle, Leishmania differentiates from the extracellular flagellated promastigote to the intracellular pathogenic amastigote. Parasite differentiation is triggered by changes in environmental cues, mainly pH and temperature. In general, extracellular signals are translated into stage-specific gene expression by a cascade of reversible protein phosphorylation regulated by protein kinases and phosphatases. Though protein kinases have been actively studied as potential anti-parasitic drug targets, our understanding of the biology of protein phosphatases in Leishmania is poor. We have previously reported the principal analysis of a novel protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) in Leishmania species. Here, we assessed the role of PP5 in parasite pathogenicity, where we uncovered, using transgenic PP5 over-expressing and PP5 null-mutant parasites, its importance in metacyclogeneisis, maintaining HSP83 phosphorylation homeostasis and virulence. All together, our results indicate the importance of PP5 in regulating parasite stress and adaptation during differentiation, making this protein an attractive potential target for therapeutic intervention.

PDB Reference: aldose reductase, 3krb.Giardia lamblia is an anaerobic aerotolerant eukaryotic parasite of the intestines. It is believed to have diverged early from eukarya during evolution and is thus lacking in many of the typical eukaryotic organelles and biochemical pathways. Most conspicuously, mitochondria and the associated machinery of oxidative phosphorylation are absent; instead, energy is derived from substratelevel phosphorylation. Here, the 1.75 Å resolution crystal structure of G. lamblia aldose reductase heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli is reported. As in other oxidoreductases, G. lamblia aldose reductase adopts a TIM-barrel conformation with the NADP + -binding site located within the eight -strands of the interior.