Background: Avian malaria has caused mortalities in captive penguins worldwide and it is a conservation threat for some wild penguins. The experience of staff working on penguins is highly valuable for the improvement of captivity conditions. Methods: An online questionnaire was designed to collect avian malaria information in penguins in the UK. Volunteers with diverse experience reviewed it for scientific value and clarity, and it was supported by the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Results: Forty-two institutions were contacted by email, obtaining 27 complete and five partial responses. Eighteen institutions reported avian malaria in 38 suspected and 37 confirmed outbreaks in the past 20 years, mainly occurring in the summer and recent years. Proportional risk was higher in the south east region of England. Humboldt and African penguins were more commonly affected, and prevalence was mostly low or medium, but lethality was high. Different treatment protocols were reported with inconsistent outcomes. Conclusions: Penguins' susceptibility, their translocation across institutions, and the wide distribution of avian malaria make this disease a constant threat. Preventive and control measures are recommended, including testing for early diagnosis and treatment, avoiding prolonged stressful events in penguins, and monitoring and controlling mosquito vectors.This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Background Zoological gardens contain unique configurations of exotic and endemic animals and plants that create a diverse range of developing sites and potential sources of blood meals for local mosquitoes. This may imply unusual interspecific pathogen transmission risks involving zoo vertebrates, like avian malaria to captive penguins. Understanding mosquito ecology and host feeding patterns is necessary to improve mosquito control and disease prevention measures in these environments. Methods Mosquito sampling took place in Chester Zoo for 3 years (2017, 2018, and 2019) and for 1 year in Flamingo Land (2017) using different trapping methods. Blood-fed mosquitoes were identified and their blood meal was amplified by PCR, sequenced, and blasted for host species identification. Results In total, 640 blood-fed mosquitoes were collected [Culex pipiens (n = 497), Culiseta annulata (n = 81), Anopheles maculipennis s.l. (n = 7), An. claviger (n = 1), and unidentifiable (n = 55)]. Successful identification of the host species was achieved from 159 blood-fed mosquitoes. Mosquitoes fed on birds (n = 74), non-human mammals (n = 20), and humans (n = 71). There were mixed blood meals from two hosts (n = 6). The proportions of blood-fed mosquitoes varied across sampling seasons and sites within the zoos. The use of resting traps and aspiration of vegetation were more efficient techniques for capturing blood-fed mosquitoes than traps for host-seeking or gravid mosquitoes. By relating the locations of zoo vertebrates to where fed mosquitoes were trapped, the minimum travelling distances were calculated (13.7 to 366.7 m). Temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, proximity to zoo vertebrate exhibits, and vegetation level were found to be significantly associated with the proportion of captured blood-fed mosquitoes by generalized linear modelling. Conclusions Mosquito feeding behaviour in zoos is mainly influenced by time, location (sampling area), temperature, and host availability, which highlights the value of mosquito monitoring in complex settings to plan control strategies and potentially reduce inherent disease transmission risks for humans and threatened zoo vertebrates. Graphic abstract

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Avian haemosporidians form a diverse group of vector-borne parasites that can cause detrimental effects on their hosts and threaten the conservation of susceptible species. We explored the prevalence and parasitemia of haemosporidians infecting wild birds from Sierra de Huautla Biosphere Reserve in Morelos, southern Mexico. Birds were caught using mist nets in three habitat conditions (conserved, disturbed, and agricultural) and during two seasons (rainy and dry). Thin blood smears were prepared from blood samples for microscopic analysis. We captured 142 birds belonging to 17 species. We identified Haemoproteus spp., Plasmodium spp., and microfilaria. Prevalence was similar among land-use types (conserved (26.3%), disturbed (36.4%) and agricultural (29.9%)), and between seasons (rainy (29.7%) and dry (29.3%)), but varied per parasite genus and group (Haemoproteus spp. (28.2%), Plasmodium spp. (2.1%), coinfections (5.6%), and microfilaria (4.9%)). Parasitemia was low in most birds (< 0.1% erythrocytes infected), and only one, with an unhealthy appearance, presented high parasitemia (> 0.5%). We reported for the first time 12 species of birds infected with haemosporidian parasites and 16 new host-parasite associations in total. This is the first study of blood parasites in this region and provides fundamental information for future research.

Haemosporidians are a widespread group of blood parasites transmitted by vectors. Despite their relevance for bird conservation, few studies have been conducted in the Amazonia and even less in terrestrial wild birds. We analysed blood samples from 168 game birds, collected from 2008 to 2015 by subsistence hunters of an indigenous rural community in the Peruvian Amazonia. DNA was tested for Haemoproteus spp., Plasmodium spp. and Leucocytozoon spp. and positive amplicons were sequenced and curated for phylogenetic analysis. Haemosporidian prevalence was 72% overall, 66.7% for Haemoproteus spp. and 5.4% for Plasmodium spp. and respectively by bird species: Spix’s Guan (Penelope jacquacu,n = 72) 87.5% and 0%, Razor-billed Curassow (Mitu tuberosum,n = 45) 77.8% and 6.7%, White-winged Trumpeter (Psophia leucoptera,n = 20) 6.3% and 12.5%, Blue-throated Piping-guan (Pipile cumanensis,n = 16) 73.3% and 6.7%, and Great Tinamou (Tinamus major,n = 15) 10% and 15%. Leucocytozoon spp. was not found. P. leucoptera and T. major were less likely to be infected with Haemoproteus spp. Fruit abundance had a negative association with Haemoproteus spp. prevalence and precipitation was negatively associated with Plasmodium spp. prevalence. The 106 sequences examined represented 29 lineages, 82.8% of them were new lineages (Plasmodiumn = 3, Haemoproteusn = 21). Novel host-parasite associations and lineages were unveiled, including probably new species of Plasmodium spp. Our results highlight the scientific value of alternative sampling methods and the collaboration with local communities.

Background: Zoological gardens contain unique configurations of exotic and endemic animals and plants that create a diverse range of developing sites and potential sources of blood meals for local mosquitoes. This may imply unusual interspecific pathogen transmission risks involving zoo animals, like avian malaria to captive penguins. Understanding mosquito ecology and host preferences is necessary to improve mosquito control and disease prevention measures in these environments. Methods: Mosquito sampling took place in Chester Zoo for three years (2017 to 2019) and for one year in Flamingo Land (2017) using different trapping methods. Blood-fed mosquitoes were identified and their bloodmeal was amplified by PCR, sequenced, and blasted for host species identification.Results: In total, 640 blood-fed mosquitoes were collected (Culex pipiens (n = 497), Culiseta annulata (n = 81), Anopheles maculipennis s.l. (n = 7), An. claviger (n = 1) and unidentifiable (n = 55)). Successful identification of the host species was achieved from 159 of the 640 blood-fed mosquitoes. Mosquitoes fed on birds (n = 74), non-human mammals (n = 20) and humans (n = 71). There were mixed bloodmeals from two hosts (n = 6). The proportions of blood-fed mosquitoes varied across sampling seasons and sites within the zoos. The use of resting traps and aspiration of vegetation were more efficient techniques for capturing blood-fed mosquitoes than traps for host-seeking or gravid mosquitoes. By relating the locations of zoo animals to where fed mosquitoes were trapped, the minimum travelling distances were calculated (13.7 to 366.7 meters). Temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, proximity to zoo animal exhibits and vegetation level were found to be significantly associated with the proportion of captured blood-fed mosquitoes by generalized linear modelling.Conclusions: Mosquito feeding behaviour in zoos is influenced by environmental variables and host availability, which highlights the value of mosquito monitoring in complex settings to plan control strategies and potentially reduce inherent disease transmission risks for humans and threatened zoo animals.