This tutorial aims to introduce Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM). A simple explanation of HLM is provided that describes when to use this statistical technique and identifies key factors to consider before conducting this analysis. The first section of the tutorial defines HLM, clarifies its purpose, and states its advantages. The second section explains the mathematical theory, equations, and conditions underlying HLM. HLM hypothesis testing is performed in the third section. Finally, the fourth section provides a practical example of running HLM, with which readers can follow along. Throughout this tutorial, emphasis is placed on providing a straightforward overview of the basic principles of HLM.

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The purpose of this research was to explore the coach–athlete relationship through the lens of self-determination theory. Specifically, this study examined coaches’ (n = 53) reported supportive and thwarting interpersonal behaviors, as well as their female athletes’ (n = 250) perceptions of these behaviors. The first objective was to determine the rate at which coaches overreported (reported their own behavior more positively than their athletes), underreported (reported their own behavior more negatively than their athletes), or were in agreement with their athletes about their reported behaviors. The results suggested that approximately 30% of coaches may have overreported their behavior. The second objective was to explore how both coaches’ reports of their behaviors and athletes’ perceptions of these same behaviors affected athletes’ psychological needs in sport. Overall, the results found that when coaches and athletes were in agreement on supportive behaviors, it promoted need satisfaction, and for thwarting behaviors, it predicted need frustration. When exploring the effect of a disagreement, athletes with coaches who underreported experienced additional need satisfaction and less need frustration compared with athletes with coaches who overreported. Overall, this study was the first to explore how coaches’ reports of their behavior align with their athletes’ perceptions and determine how the dynamics of that relationship affect athletes’ psychological needs in sport.

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This study explored how the coaching context influences coaches' psychological needs, motivation, and reported interpersonal behaviors, using self-determination theory. In Study 1, 56 coaches identified how contextual factors influence their coaching experience. Coaches identified administration, athlete motivation, colleagues, parents, professional development, time, and work-life as having the largest impact on them. In Study 2, 424 coaches reported on their perceptions of the factors identified in Study 1 and their psychological needs, motivation, and interpersonal behaviors. Structural equation modeling analyses suggested perceptions of the coaching context supported or thwarted their psychological needs, which positively or negatively predicted their autonomous and controlled motivation. Coaches' autonomous motivation predicted their reported supportive interpersonal behaviors and controlled motivation predicted thwarting behaviors. Overall, the results provided additional support for understanding how the coaching context, coaches' psychological needs, and their motivation for coaching relate to their coaching behaviors.

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