Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a known risk factor for the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD), with no satisfactory strategy to prevent the progression of AKI to CKD. Damage to the renal vascular system and subsequent hypoxia are common contributors to both AKI and CKD. Hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) is reported to protect the kidney from acute ischemic damage and a novel HIF stabilizer, FG4592 (Roxadustat), has become available in the clinic as an anti-anemia drug. However, the role of FG4592 in the AKI-to-CKD transition remains elusive. In the present study, we investigated the role of FG4592 in the AKI-to-CKD transition induced by unilateral kidney ischemia-reperfusion (UIR). The results showed that FG4592, given to mice 3 days after UIR, markedly alleviated kidney fibrosis and enhanced renal vascular regeneration, possibly via activating the HIF-1α/vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA)/VEGF receptor 1 (VEGFR1) signaling pathway and driving the expression of the endogenous antioxidant superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2). In accordance with the improved renal vascular regeneration and redox balance, the metabolic disorders of the UIR mice kidneys were also attenuated by treatment with FG4592. However, the inflammatory response in the UIR kidneys was not affected significantly by FG-4592. Importantly, in the kidneys of CKD patients, we also observed enhanced HIF-1α expression which was positively correlated with the renal levels of VEGFA and SOD2. Together, these findings demonstrated the therapeutic effect of the anti-anemia drug FG-4592 in preventing the AKI-to-CKD transition related to ischemia and the redox imbalance.

Hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs) and their regulatory hydroxylases the prolyl hydroxylase domain enzymes (PHDs) are the key mediators of the cellular response to hypoxia. HIFs are normally hydroxylated by PHDs and degraded, while under hypoxia, PHDs are suppressed, allowing HIF-α to accumulate and transactivate multiple target genes, including erythropoiesis, and genes participate in angiogenesis, iron metabolism, glycolysis, glucose transport, cell proliferation, survival, and so on. Aiming at stimulating HIFs, a group of small molecules antagonizing HIF-PHDs have been developed. Of these HIF-PHDs inhibitors (HIF-PHIs), roxadustat (FG-4592), daprodustat (GSK-1278863), vadadustat (AKB-6548), molidustat (BAY 85-3934) and enarodustat (JTZ-951) are approved for clinical usage or have progressed into clinical trials for chronic kidney disease (CKD) anemia treatment, based on their activation effect on erythropoiesis and iron metabolism. Since HIFs are involved in many physiological and pathological conditions, efforts have been made to extend the potential usage of HIF-PHIs beyond anemia. This paper reviewed the progress of preclinical and clinical research on clinically available HIF-PHIs in pathological conditions other than CKD anemia.

Mitochondria comprise the central metabolic hub of cells and their imbalance plays a pathogenic role in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Here, we studied Lon protease 1 (LONP1), a major mitochondrial protease, as its role in CKD pathogenesis is unclear. LONP1 expression was decreased in human patients and mice with CKD, and tubular‐specific Lonp1 overexpression mitigated renal injury and mitochondrial dysfunction in two different models of CKD, but these outcomes were aggravated by Lonp1 deletion. These results were confirmed in renal tubular epithelial cells in vitro. Mechanistically, LONP1 downregulation caused mitochondrial accumulation of the LONP1 substrate, 3‐hydroxy‐3‐methylglutaryl‐CoA synthase 2 (HMGCS2), which disrupted mitochondrial function and further accelerated CKD progression. Finally, computer‐aided virtual screening was performed, which identified a novel LONP1 activator. Pharmacologically, the LONP1 activator attenuated renal fibrosis and mitochondrial dysfunction. Collectively, these results imply that LONP1 is a promising therapeutic target for treating CKD.