The relative importance of protein function change and gene expression change in phenotypic evolution is a contentious, yet central topic in evolutionary biology. Analyzing 5,199 mouse genes with recorded mutant phenotypes, we find that genes exclusively affecting morphological traits when mutated (dubbed “morphogenes”) are grossly enriched with transcriptional regulators, whereas those exclusively affecting physiological traits (dubbed “physiogenes”) are enriched with channels, transporters, receptors, and enzymes. Compared to physiogenes, morphogenes are more likely to be essential and pleiotropic and less likely to be tissue specific. Morphogenes evolve faster in expression profile, but slower in protein sequence and gene gain/loss than physiogenes. Thus, morphological and physiological changes have a differential molecular basis; separating them helps discern the genetic mechanisms of phenotypic evolution.

It is of fundamental importance to understand the determinants of the rate of protein evolution. Eukaryotic extracellular proteins are known to evolve faster than intracellular proteins. Although this rate difference appears to be due to the lower essentiality of extracellular proteins than intracellular proteins in yeast, we here show that, in mammals, the impact of extracellularity is independent from the impact of gene essentiality. Our partial correlation analysis indicated that the impact of extracellularity on mammalian protein evolutionary rate is also independent from those of tissue-specificity, expression level, gene compactness, and the number of protein–protein interactions and, surprisingly, is the strongest among all the factors we examined. Similar results were also found from principal component regression analysis. Our findings suggest that different rules govern the pace of protein sequence evolution in mammals and yeasts.