Plant resistance to pathogens is tuned by defense-related hormones. Of these, abscisic acid (ABA) is well documented to moderate resistance against fungi and bacteria. However, ABA's contribution to resistance against viruses is pleiotropic. ABA affects callose deposition at plasmodesmata (therefore hindering the viral cell-to-cell movement), but here, we show that when callose synthase is down-regulated, ABA still induces resistance against infection with Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV). By examining the potential connections between the ABA and RNA-silencing pathways in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), we showed that ABA regulates the expression of almost the whole ARGONAUTE (AGO) gene family, of which some are required for plant resistance against BaMV. Our data show that BaMV infection and ABA treatment regulate the same set of AGOs, with positive effects on AGO1, AGO2, and AGO3, no effect on AGO7, and negative effects on AGO4 and AGO10. The BaMV-mediated regulation of AGO1, AGO2, and AGO3 is ABA dependent, because the accumulation of these AGOs in BaMVinfected ABA mutants did not reach the levels observed in infected wild-type plants. In addition, the AGO1-miR168a complex is dispensable for BaMV resistance, while AGO2 and AGO3 were important for ABA-mediated resistance. While most ago mutants showed increased susceptibility to BaMV infection (except ago10), ago1-27 showed reduced BaMV titers, which was attributed to the up-regulated levels of AGO2, AGO3, and AGO4. We have established that ABA regulates the expression of several members of the AGO family, and this regulation partially contributes to ABA-mediated resistance against BaMV. These findings reveal another role for ABA in plants.RNA silencing provides plants with broad resistance against virus infection through small RNA (sRNA)-directed degradation (Ding, 2010). While it is well established that salicylic acid (SA) controls plant resistance to virus infection via R gene resistance (Baebler et al., 2014), it also has been suggested that SA regulates a few genes in the RNA-silencing pathway (Alamillo et al., 2006;Hunter et al., 2013). In fact, the regulation of defense responses has been demonstrated to be a hormonetuned process in many cases. Other hormones, such as jasmonic acid and ethylene, also are involved in the plant-virus interaction but exhibit specificity in terms of the infecting virus and the type of resistance triggered (Alazem and Lin, 2015).Abscisic acid (ABA) also is involved in modulating plant resistance against various pathogens, but the timing of its activation is critical for determining plant susceptibility or resistance; therefore, it has been labeled as a phase-specific modulator of defense responses (MauchMani and Mauch, 2005). Nevertheless, ABA does not seem to be phase specific against viruses, and few reports have shown that ABA improves plant resistance to viruses. We previously found that ABA treatment decreases titers of Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) in inoculated leaves of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) and that ABA-me...

Synergistic interactions among viruses, hosts and/or transmission vectors during mixed infection can alter viral titers, symptom severity or host range. Viral suppressors of RNA silencing (VSRs) are considered one of such factors contributing to synergistic responses. Odontoglossum ringspot virus (ORSV) and cymbidium mosaic virus (CymMV), which are two of the most significant orchid viruses, exhibit synergistic symptom intensification in Phalaenopsis orchids with unilaterally enhanced CymMV movement by ORSV. In order to reveal the underlying mechanisms, we generated infectious cDNA clones of ORSV and CymMV isolated from Phalaenopsis that exerted similar unilateral synergism in both Phalaenopsis orchid and Nicotiana benthamiana. Moreover, we show that the ORSV replicase P126 is a VSR. Mutagenesis analysis revealed that mutation of the methionine in the carboxyl terminus of ORSV P126 abolished ORSV replication even though some P126 mutants preserved VSR activity, indicating that the VSR function of P126 alone is not sufficient for viral replication. Thus, P126 functions in both ORSV replication and as a VSR. Furthermore, P126 expression enhanced cell-to-cell movement and viral titers of CymMV in infected Phalaenopsis flowers and N. benthamiana leaves. Taking together, both the VSR and protein function of P126 might be prerequisites for unilaterally enhancing CymMV cell-to-cell movement by ORSV.

We have developed a new binary epitope-presenting CVP platform based on bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) by using the sortase A (SrtA)-mediated ligation technology. The reconstructed BaMV genome harbors two modifications: 1) a coat protein (CP) with N-terminal extension of the tobacco etch virus (TEV) protease recognition site plus 4 extra glycine (G) residues as the SrtA acceptor; and 2) a TEV protease coding region replacing that of the triple-gene-block proteins. Inoculation of such construct, pKB5G, on Nicotiana benthamiana resulted in the efficient production of filamentous CVPs ready for SrtA-mediated ligation with desired proteins. The second part of the binary platform includes an expression vector for the bacterial production of donor proteins. We demonstrated the applicability of the platform by using the recombinant envelope protein domain III (rEDIII) of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) as the antigen. Up to 40% of the BaMV CP subunits in each CVP were loaded with rEDIII proteins in 1 min. The rEDIII-presenting BaMV CVPs (BJLPET5G) could be purified using affinity chromatography. Immunization assays confirmed that BJLPET5G could induce the production of neutralizing antibodies against JEV infections. The binary platform could be adapted as a useful alternative for the development and mass production of vaccine candidates.

Viruses hijack various organelles and machineries for their replication and movement. Ever more lines of evidence indicate that specific nuclear factors are involved in systemic trafficking of several viruses. However, how such factors regulate viral systemic movement remains unclear. Here, we identify a novel role for Nicotiana benthamiana high mobility group nucleoprotein (NbHMG1/2a) in virus movement. Although infection of N. benthamiana with Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) decreased NbHMG1/2a expression levels, nuclear-localized NbHMG1/2a protein was shuttled out of the nucleus into cytoplasm upon BaMV infection. NbHMG1/2a knockdown or even overexpression did not affect BaMV accumulation in inoculated leaves, but it did enhance systemic movement of the virus. Interestingly, the positive regulator Rap-GTPase activation protein 1 was highly upregulated upon infection with BaMV, whereas the negative regulator thioredoxin h protein was greatly reduced, no matter if NbHMG1a/2a was silenced or overexpressed. Our findings indicate that NbHMG1/2a may have a role in plant defense responses. Once its homeostasis is disrupted, expression of relevant host factors may be perturbed that, in turn, facilitates BaMV systemic movement.