Cultivated and wild growing samples of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Apiaceae) from R. Macedonia were studied for their volatiles and fatty acid composition. The main essential oil components isolated via hydrodistillation were: trans-anethole (>80%), estragole (<6%), limonene (<6%), anisaldehyde (<1%) and 0.5 % fenchone. An alternative method for characterization of both the non-polar volatile and non volatile fractions was developed using n-hexane and dichloromethane (3:1, v/v) in a Soxhlet extraction followed by transesterification. The obtained extracts were then characterized and the dominant fatty acid was 18:1 (petroselinic and oleic acid) 75.0-82.8 %, followed by 18:2 (linoleic acid) 10.8-16.2% and other fatty acids: palmitic (4.3-6.9%), stearic (1.2-1.7%) and myristic (0-2.9%). The results for the volatile fraction after Soxhlet extraction and transesterification did not significantly differ from results obtained after hydrodistillation, especially for the main components (trans-anethole, estragole, fenchone and limonene), implying that the developed method can be used for simultaneous determination of volatiles and fatty acids.

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Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) are well-known aromatic plants with traditional use as medicinal and culinary spices and herbs. As part of a broader study, the aim of this investigation was to determine the chemical composition of fennel fruit essential oil (Foeniculi fructus aetheroleum, FFA) and anise fruit essential oil (Anisi aetheroleum, AA) and to assess their antimicrobial potential. Hydrodistilled FFA from fruits gathered in central Macedonia was subjected to physico-chemical analysis, as well as commercial AA, which was obtained from a local vendor. The chemical composition of both essential oils was determined using gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. The main component of both essential oils was trans-anethole. The antimicrobial action of both essential oils (FFA and AA) was tested against several bacterial cultures and compared to standard antimicrobial agents. The microorganisms used in this research were Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus pumilus NCTC 8241, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538,), Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 8739 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027), and fungi (Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 9763 and Candida albicans ATCC 10231). The microdilution test enabled determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of all samples used in the experiment against all of the test microorganisms. It was concluded that FFA and AA have moderate antibacterial activity and affect the growth of the Gram positive and the Gram negative bacteria. On the other, they are potent antifungal agents and affect the growth of S. cerevisiae ATCC 9763 and C. albicans ATCC 10231. AA was observed to have a slightly higher antimicrobial activity when compared to FFA. Based on the chemical composition of the samples, a connection was proposed between the trans-anethole content of the essential oils and their antimicrobial properties.

Two extraction methods for subsequent gas chromatographic (GC) determination of volatiles from freshly harvested and aged fennel fruit samples (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.,ssp. vulgare var. dulce) have been compared. Hydrodistillation followed by GC-FID and GC-MS analysis was used as a standard method for essential oil characterization, while static headspace followed by GC (SHS-GC-FID) was used as a comparative method for determination of volatile components. As the fennel fruit ages, there is a gradual loss of the volatile components as indicated by the lower yield of essential oil and lower content of volatiles, as indicated by the alternative SHS-GC-FID analysis. Slight differences observed for the main components (trans-anethole, estragole, fenchone, and limonene) using the two methods are negligible, indicating that these volatiles did not undergo chemical transformation during the sample preparation procedures. A difference in anisaldehyde content was observed when the composition of the hydrodistilled essential oil was compared with the SHS-GC-FIDanalysis of volatiles and explanation for the variation of anisaldehyde content and the origin of other compounds was suggested. Comparison of the obtained results showed that limonene oxides, carvone and carveolare detectable in SHS-GC-FID analysis of the aged fennel fruits, while in hydrodistilled samples analyzed by GC-FID they were not present. Another observed difference was the appearance of products in significant amounts with higher retention times than trans-anethole, namely threo-and erythro-anethole β-hydroxymethylether and anethole glycol that are not detectable in the essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation. So, the relative abundance of the major components is comparable between these two methods for fennel seed up to 3 years from harvest and they can be used interchangeably depending on the purpose and amount of material. Furthermore, SHS-GC-FID can be used for assessment of maximum storage time and quality of fennel fruit suitable for human consumption.

: The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is a crucial protein degradation pathway that involves several enzymes to maintain cellular protein homeostasis. This system has emerged as a major drug target against certain types of cancer as a disruption at the cellular level of UPS enzyme components forces the transformation of normal cell into cancerous cell. Although enormous advancements have been achieved in the understanding of tumorigenesis, efficient cancer therapy remains a goal towards alleviating this serious health issue. Since UPS has become a promising target for anticancer therapies, herein we provide comprehensive review of the ubiquitin proteasome system as a significant process for protein degradation. Herein, the anti-cancer therapeutic potential of this pathway is also discussed.