Based on criminal career data of a sample of 601 police-identified outlaw motorcycle gang members and an age-matched comparison group of 300 non-gang affiliated motorcycle owners, the current analysis examines various dimensions of the criminal careers of outlaw bikers, including participation, onset, frequency, and crime mix. Results show that Dutch outlaw bikers are more often convicted than the average Dutch motorcyclist, and that these convictions not only pertain to minor offenses but also to serious and violent crimes. We find that outlaw bikers' criminal careers differ from that of the average Dutch motorcyclist already during the juvenile and early adult years, but also -and more so -during the adult years. These results fit the enhancement hypothesis of gang membership and suggest that both selection of crime prone individuals in outlaw motorcycle gangs and facilitation of criminal behavior whilst in the gang are taking place.
This essay focuses on four conditions that influence the level of complexity of money laundering in relation to organized crime. We start with the types of crime and forms in which proceeds are generated, including the type of payment, the visibility of the crimes to victims and/or to the authorities, and the elapsed time interval before financial investigation occurs (if it ever does). Second, the amount of individual net profits show differences between criminals who have no use for money laundering, those who self-launder, and those who need assistance from third party launderers. Third are the offender's goals and preferences in relation to spending and investing crime proceeds. Investments are often (culturally) close to home or country of origin, some opt to wield (often local) power but a large part is freely spent on a hedonistic lifestyle. Fourth, the expected and actual levels of scrutiny and intervention of the anti-money laundering regime play a role in influencing savings and re-investment decisions and in some arrests and proceeds confiscation, but overall, there is no clear cause-effect relationship. The four conditions can intertwine in numerous ways and have no particular sequence. When conditions necessitate or stimulate more complex money laundering schemes, this is reflected not only in techniques, but also in the social networks that are developed or may be a precondition for those schemes (and a constraint on those organized criminals who cannot find an appropriate launderer). Complex cases often depend on the assistance of professional money launderers, outsiders to the criminal's usual social circle and in some places, their availability might be a constraint on organized criminals' expansion. Professional money launderers are people who can be contracted, as experts in their field, to solve particular financial and/or jurisdictional bottlenecks. Using principal-agency theory, we explain how trust is established or tension is resolved between criminal and third party launderer.
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to broaden the discussion on trade-based money laundering (TBML). The literature is too narrowly focused on the misrepresentation of the value, quantity or quality of the traded goods. This focus leads to the analysis of price anomalies as a signal of over- or under-invoicing. However, TBML can also occur without manipulation of these factors. Design/methodology/approach – A review of the literature and case study of police investigations. Findings – Financial action task force (FATF) definitions are seriously flawed. The question of whether detecting TBML on the basis of statistical trade data is effective should be much more open to debate. Police investigations show that goods are shipped at their true value within the context of TBML. Research limitations/implications – Using outliers to identify and act on cases of TBML has often been propagated, but scarcely been used to actually show TBML. Real findings are needed. Practical implications – Goods intended for TBML can also be paid for in cash. These cash payments are often out of character with the normal clientele. This should alert companies and compliance sections of banks alike. Originality/value – The critique on the FATF definition opens the field for a more fitting definition. The description of actual TBML cases makes it possible to better understand this method of money laundering.
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