Forkhead box O (FoxO) transcription factors play an important role as tumor suppressor in several human malignancies. Disruption of FoxO activity due to loss of phosphatase and tensin homolog and activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)/Akt are frequently observed in prostate cancer. Apigenin, a naturally occurring plant flavone, exhibits antiproliferative and anticarcinogenic activities through mechanisms, which are not fully defined. In the present study, we show that apigenin suppressed prostate tumorigenesis in transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) mice through the PI3K/Akt/FoxO-signaling pathway. Apigenin-treated TRAMP mice (20 and 50 μg/mouse/day, 6 days/week for 20 weeks) exhibited significant decrease in tumor volumes of the prostate as well as completely abolished distant organ metastasis. Apigenin treatment resulted in significant decrease in the weight of genitourinary apparatus (P < 0.0001), dorsolateral (P < 0.0001) and ventral prostate (P < 0.028), compared with the control group. Apigenin-treated mice showed reduced phosphorylation of Akt (Ser473) and FoxO3a (Ser253), which correlated with its increased nuclear retention and decreased binding of FoxO3a with 14-3-3. These events lead to reduced proliferation as assessed by Ki-67 and cyclin D1, along with upregulation of FoxO-responsive proteins BIM and p27/Kip1. Complementing in vivo results, similar observations were noted in human prostate cancer LNCaP and PC-3 cells after apigenin treatment. Furthermore, binding of FoxO3a with p27/Kip1 was markedly increased after 10 and 20 μM apigenin treatment resulting in G0/G1-phase cell cycle arrest, which was consistent with the effects elicited by PI3K/Akt inhibitor, LY294002. These results provide convincing evidence that apigenin effectively suppressed prostate cancer progression, at least in part, by targeting the PI3K/Akt/FoxO-signaling pathway.
Abstract. In recent years, "nutri-epigenetics," which focuses on the influence of dietary agents on epigenetic mechanism(s), has emerged as an exciting novel area in epigenetics research. Targeting of aberrant epigenetic modifications has gained considerable attention in cancer chemoprevention research because, unlike genetic changes, epigenetic alterations are reversible and occur during early carcinogenesis. Aberrant epigenetic mechanisms, such as promoter DNA methylation, histone modifications, and miRNA-mediated post-transcriptional alterations, can silence critical tumor suppressor genes, such as transcription factors, cell cycle regulators, nuclear receptors, signal transducers, and apoptosis-inducing and DNA repair gene products, and ultimately contribute to carcinogenesis. In an effort to identify and develop anticancer agents which cause minimal harm to normal cells while effectively killing cancer cells, a number of naturally occurring phytochemicals in food and medicinal plants have been investigated. This review highlights the potential role of plant-derived phytochemicals in targeting epigenetic alterations that occur during carcinogenesis, by modulating the activity or expression of DNA methyltransferases, histone modifying enzymes, and miRNAs. We present in detail the epigenetic mode of action of various phytochemicals and discuss their potential as safe and clinically useful chemopreventive strategies.
Docetaxel (DTX) chemotherapy remains a standard-of-care for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). DTX modestly increases survival, yet results in frequent occurrence of side-effects and resistant disease. An alternate chemotherapy with greater efficacy and minimal side-effects is needed. Acquisition of metabolic aberrations promoting increased survival and metastasis in CRPC cells include constitutive activation of Akt, loss of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity due to Ser-485/491 phosphorylation, and over-expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-Coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoAR). We report that combination of simvastatin (SIM) and metformin (MET), within pharmacological dose range (500nM to 4µM SIM and 250µM to 2mM MET), significantly and synergistically reduces C4-2B3/B4 CRPC cell viability and metastatic properties with minimal adverse effects on normal prostate epithelial cells. Combination of SIM and MET decreased Akt Ser-473 and Thr-308 phosphorylation and AMPKα Ser-485/491 phosphorylation, increased Thr-172 phosphorylation and AMPKα activity as assessed by increased Ser-79 and Ser-872 phosphorylation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase and HMG-CoAR, respectively; decreased HMG-CoAR activity, and reduced total cellular cholesterol and its synthesis in both cell lines. Studies of C4-2B4 orthotopic NCr-nu/nu mice further demonstrated that combination of SIM and MET (3.5–7.0µg/g body weight SIM and 175–350µg/g body weight MET) daily by oral gavage over 9-week period significantly inhibited primary ventral prostate tumor formation, cachexia, bone metastasis, and biochemical failure more effectively than 24µg/g body weight DTX intraperitoneally-injected every three weeks, 7.0µg/g/day SIM, or 350µg/g/day MET treatment alone, with significantly less toxicity and mortality than DTX, establishing combination SIM and MET as a promising chemotherapeutic alternative for metastatic CRPC.
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