Pre-school age can be a stressful time for parents of a young child with autism spectrum disorder. This study investigated whether parenting stress and externalising behaviour problems were similarly associated to parenting behaviours in 42 mothers of pre-schoolers with and without autism, using observations and questionnaires. Mothers of autistic pre-schoolers reported more parenting stress and more externalising behaviour problems, demonstrated fewer sensitive and more negative behaviours, and reported less stimulation of their child’s development, compared with mothers in the control group. In both groups, externalising behaviour problems predicted negativity during observation, and parenting stress predicted reported autonomy support. Our findings may suggest that mothers of autistic pre-schoolers are still struggling to tune their parenting behaviour to their child’s needs.

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Research on emergent autism spectrum disorder increasingly uses observational measures to investigate parenting of young children with or at elevated likelihood of autism. This systematic review analysed 21 papers narratively, including 13 unique "coding approaches" and 63 parenting constructs. Through a comprehensive consensus decision-making process, parenting constructs were classified under nine overarching categories, identified based on prior categorisation: Warmth, Responsiveness, Scaffolding, Proactive Control, Intrusiveness, Negativity, Dyad, Other, Multiple. We found large heterogeneity in observational measures, and descriptions of parenting constructs lacked uniformity. The complex categorisation process demonstrates the need for a solid conceptual framework that can inform theory and practice. This review provides a first step, but further research should investigate applicability among young children of different ages.

Well-being and parenting behaviours were studied longitudinally among mothers of younger siblings of children on the autism spectrum (‘siblings’; n = 81) and prematurely born children (‘pre-terms’; n = 40). Growth curves were modelled to investigate whether maternal well-being and group (siblings vs. pre-terms) were associated with (change in) reported parenting behaviours between 10 and 24 months of child’s age. As expected, we found more stability than change in parenting behaviours, and more similarities than group differences in parenting behaviours and maternal well-being. Both mothers of siblings and pre-terms reported more disciplinary behaviours when their child grew older, in line with general population findings. Initial levels of supportive behaviours were equally high among mothers of siblings and pre-terms, but mothers of pre-terms reported a further increase between 10 and 24 months while mothers of siblings reported stability. Contrary to our hypotheses, maternal well-being was not associated with any of the parenting behaviours. Despite well-being levels below the general population mean (primarily in the sibling group), mothers in our sample reported that they often used supportive behaviours. This is encouraging, as all children, but in particular a subgroup of children at elevated likelihood of autism who may be especially susceptible to their environment, benefit from supportive and responsive behaviours.

Declarations Funding M. Madarevic receives funding from the Marie Marguerite Delacroix foundation. M. Madarevic, P. Warreyn and I. Noens are part of the Tracking Infants At Risk for Autism (TIARA) study, that is funded by FWO (project number S001517N). AbstractResearch on emergent autism spectrum disorder increasingly uses observational measures to investigate parenting of young children with or at elevated likelihood of autism. This systematic review analysed 21 papers narratively, including 13 unique "coding approaches" and 63 parenting constructs. Through a comprehensive consensus decision-making process, parenting constructs were classified under nine overarching categories, identified based on prior categorisation: Warmth, Responsiveness, Scaffolding, Proactive Control, Intrusiveness, Negativity, Dyad, Other, Multiple. We found large heterogeneity in observational measures, and descriptions of parenting constructs lacked uniformity. The complex categorisation process demonstrates the need for a solid conceptual framework that can inform theory and practice.This review provides a first step, but further research should investigate applicability among young children of different ages.