SUMMARYTesticular teratomas result from anomalies in germ cell development during embryogenesis. In the 129 family of inbred strains of mice, teratomas initiate around embryonic day (E) 13.5 during the same developmental period in which female germ cells initiate meiosis and male germ cells enter mitotic arrest. Here, we report that three germ cell developmental abnormalities, namely continued proliferation, retention of pluripotency, and premature induction of differentiation, associate with teratoma susceptibility. Using mouse strains with low versus high teratoma incidence (129 versus 129-Chr19 MOLF/Ei ), and resistant to teratoma formation (FVB), we found that germ cell proliferation and expression of the pluripotency factor Nanog at a specific time point, E15.5, were directly related with increased tumor risk. Additionally, we discovered that genes expressed in pre-meiotic embryonic female and adult male germ cells, including cyclin D1 (Ccnd1) and stimulated by retinoic acid 8 (Stra8), were prematurely expressed in teratoma-susceptible germ cells and, in rare instances, induced entry into meiosis. As with Nanog, expression of differentiation-associated factors at a specific time point, E15.5, increased with tumor risk. Furthermore, Nanog and Ccnd1, genes with known roles in testicular cancer risk and tumorigenesis, respectively, were co-expressed in teratoma-susceptible germ cells and tumor stem cells, suggesting that retention of pluripotency and premature germ cell differentiation both contribute to tumorigenesis. Importantly, Stra8-deficient mice had an 88% decrease in teratoma incidence, providing direct evidence that premature initiation of the meiotic program contributes to tumorigenesis. These results show that deregulation of the mitotic-meiotic switch in XY germ cells contributes to teratoma initiation.

Several genetic variants act as modifiers of testicular germ cell tumor (TGCT) susceptibility in the 129/Sv mouse model of human pediatric TGCTs. One such modifier, the Steel locus, encodes the transmembrane-bound and soluble ligand of the kit receptor. Some (Sl and SlJ) but not all (Sld) mutations of the Steel locus increase TGCT incidence in heterozygous mutant mice. Because Sl and SlJ are large deletions that affect multiple transcripts and Sld is an intragenic deletion of the kit ligand (Kitl) from which only the soluble protein is produced, it was uncertain whether Kitl or a neighboring gene is a modifier of TGCT susceptibility. We tested the effect of the small Steel grizzle-belly (Slgb) deletion on TGCT susceptibility to determine whether Kitl is a TGCT modifier gene. An increase in TGCT incidence was observed in Slgb/+ heterozygotes, and fine mapping of the deletion breakpoints revealed that Kitl is the only conventional gene deleted by the mutation, suggesting that Kitl is the TGCT modifier gene at the Steel locus. Additionally, we propose that soluble KITL in Sld/+ heterozygous mutant mice complements a dosage effect of transmembraneassociated kit ligand on TGCT susceptibility and that the kit receptor (Kit) is haplosufficient for primordial germ cell development. [Cancer Res 2008;68(13):5193-7]

The agouti-yellow (A(y)) deletion is the only genetic modifier known to suppress testicular germ cell tumor (TGCT) susceptibility in mice or humans. The A(y) mutation deletes Raly and Eif2s2, and induces the ectopic expression of agouti, all of which are potential TGCT-modifying mutations. Here we report that the reduced TGCT incidence of heterozygous A(y) males and the recessive embryonic lethality of A(y) are caused by the deletion of Eif2s2, the beta subunit of translation initiation factor eIF2. We found that the incidence of affected males was reduced 2-fold in mice that were partially deficient for Eif2s2 and that embryonic lethality occurred near the time of implantation in mice that were fully deficient for Eif2s2. In contrast, neither reduced expression of Raly in gene-trap mice nor ectopic expression of agouti in transgenic or viable-yellow (A(vy)) mutants affected TGCT incidence or embryonic viability. In addition, we provide evidence that partial deficiency of Eif2s2 attenuated germ cell proliferation and differentiation, both of which are important to TGCT formation. These results show that germ cell development and TGCT pathogenesis are sensitive to the availability of the eIF2 translation initiation complex and to changes in the rate of translation.