While monosynaptic bulbospinal projections to phrenic motoneurons have been extensively described, little is known about the organization of phrenic premotor neurons in the adult rat spinal cord. As interneurons may play an important role in normal breathing and recovery following spinal cord injury, the present study has used anterograde and transneuronal retrograde tracing to study their distribution and synaptic relations. Exclusive unilateral, first-order labeling of the phrenic motoneuron pool with pseudorabies virus demonstrated a substantial number of second-order, bilaterally-distributed cervical interneurons predominantly in the dorsal horn and around the central canal. Combined transneuronal and anterograde tracing revealed ventral respiratory column projections to pre-phrenic interneurons suggesting some propriospinal relays exist between medullary neurons and the phrenic nucleus. Dual-labeling studies with pseudorabies virus recombinants also showed pre-phrenic interneurons integrated with either contralateral phrenic or intercostal motoneuron pools. The stability of interneuronal pseudorabies virus labeling patterns following lateral cervical hemisection was then addressed. Except for fewer infected contralateral interneurons at the level of the central canal, the number and distribution of phrenicassociated interneurons was not significantly altered two weeks post-hemisection (i.e. when the earliest post-injury recovery of phrenic activity has been reported). These results demonstrate a heterogeneous population of phrenic-related interneurons. Their connectivity and relative stability after cervical hemisection raises speculation for potentially diverse roles in modulating phrenic function normally and post-injury.

The entry of therapeutic compounds into the brain and spinal cord is normally restricted by barrier mechanisms in cerebral blood vessels (blood-brain barrier) and choroid plexuses (blood-CSF barrier). In the injured brain, ruptured cerebral blood vessels circumvent these barrier mechanisms by allowing blood contents to escape directly into the brain parenchyma. This process may contribute to the secondary damage that follows the initial primary injury. However, this localized compromise of barrier function in the injured brain may also provide a 'window of opportunity' through which drugs that do not normally cross the blood-brain barriers are able to do so. This paper describes a systematic study of barrier permeability in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury using both small and large inert molecules that can be visualized or quantified. The results show that soon after trauma, both large and small molecules are able to enter the brain in and around the injury site. Barrier restriction to large (protein-sized) molecules is restored by 4-5 h after injury. In contrast, smaller molecules (286-10,000 Da) are still able to enter the brain as long as 4 days postinjury. Thus the period of potential secondary damage from barrier disruption and the period during which therapeutic compounds have direct access to the injured brain may be longer than previously thought.

Numerous studies have demonstrated anatomical and functional neuroplasticity following spinal cord injury. One of the more notable examples is return of ipsilateral phrenic motoneuron and diaphragm activity which can be induced under terminal neurophysiological conditions after high cervical hemisection in the rat. More recently it has been shown that a protracted, spontaneous recovery also occurs in this model. While a candidate neural substrate has been identified for the former, the neuroanatomical basis underlying spontaneous recovery has not been explored. Demonstrations of spinal respiratory interneurons in other species suggest such cells may play a role; however, the presence of interneurons in the adult rat phrenic circuit – the primary animal model of respiratory plasticity – has not been extensively investigated. Emerging neuroanatomical and electrophysiological results raise the possibility of a more complex neural network underlying spontaneous recovery of phrenic function and compensatory respiratory neuroplasticity after C2 hemisection than has been previously considered.

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Compromised blood-brain barrier permeability resulting from systemic inflammation has been implicated as a possible cause of brain damage in fetuses and newborns and may underlie white matter damage later in life. Rats at postnatal day (P) 0, P8 and P20 and opossums (Monodelphis domestica) at P15, P20, P35, P50 and P60 and adults of both species were injected intraperitoneally with 0.2-10 mg/kg body weight of 055:B5 lipopolysaccharide. An acute-phase response occurred in all animals. A change in the permeability of the blood-brain barrier to plasma proteins during a restricted period of postnatal development in both species was determined immunocytochemically by the presence of proteins surrounding cerebral blood vessels and in brain parenchyma. Blood vessels in white matter, but not grey matter, became transiently permeable to proteins between 10 and 24 h after lipopolysaccharide injection in P0 and P8 rats and P35-P60 opossums. Brains of Monodelphis younger than P35, rats older than P20 and adults of both species were not affected. Permeability of the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barrier to proteins was not affected by systemic inflammation for at least 48 h after intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide. These results show that there is a restricted period in brain development when the blood-brain barrier, but not the blood-CSF barrier, to proteins is susceptible to systemic inflammation; this does not appear to be attributable to barrier "immaturity" but to its stage of development and only occurs in white matter.

The consequences of spinal cord injury (SCI) are often viewed as the result of white matter damage. However, injuries occurring at any spinal level, especially in cervical and lumbar enlargement regions, also entail segmental neuronal loss. Yet, the contributions of gray matter injury and plasticity to functional outcomes are poorly understood. The present study addressed this issue by investigating changes in respiratory function following bilateral C3/C4 contusion injuries at the level of the phoenix motoneuron (PhMN) pool which in the adult rat extends from C3–C5/6 and provides innervation to the diaphragm. Despite extensive white and gray matter pathology associated with two magnitudes of injury severity, ventilation was relatively unaffected during both quiet breathing and respiratory challenge (hypercapnia). On the other hand, bilateral diaphragm EMG recordings revealed that the ability to increase diaphragm activity during respiratory challenge was substantially, and chronically, impaired. This deficit has not been seen following predominantly white matter lesions at higher cervical levels. Thus, the impact of gray matter damage relative to PhMNs and/or interneurons becomes evident during conditions associated with increased respiratory drive. Unaltered ventilatory behavior, despite significant deficits in diaphragm function, suggests compensatory neuroplasticity involving recruitment of other spinal respiratory networks which may entail remodeling of connections. Transynaptic tracing, using pseudorabies virus (PRV), revealed changes in PhMN-related interneuronal labeling rostral to the site of injury, thus offering insight into the potential anatomical reorganization and spinal plasticity following cervical contusion.

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Pompe disease is a lysosomal storage disorder associated with systemic deficiency of acid α-glucosidase (GAA). Respiratory-related problems in Pompe disease include hypoventilation and upper airway dysfunction. Although these problems have generally been attributed to muscular pathology, recent work has highlighted the potential role of central nervous system (CNS) neuropathology in Pompe motor deficiencies. We used a murine model of Pompe disease to test the hypothesis that systemic GAA deficiency is associated with hypoglossal (XII) motoneuron pathology and altered XII motor output during breathing. Brainstem tissue was harvested from adult Gaa−/− mice and the periodic acid Schiff method was used to examine neuronal glycogen accumulation. Semi-thin (2 μm) plastic sections showed widespread medullary neuropathology with extensive cytoplasmic glycogen accumulation in XII motoneuron soma. We next recorded efferent XII bursting in anesthetized and ventilated Gaa−/− and B6/129 mice both before and after bilateral vagotomy. The coefficient of variation of respiratory cycle duration was greater in Gaa−/− compared to B6/129 mice (p < 0.01). Vagotomy caused a robust increase in XII inspiratory burst amplitude in B6/129 mice (239 ± 44% baseline; p < 0.01) but had little impact on burst amplitude in Gaa−/− mice (130 ± 23% baseline; p > 0.05). We conclude that CNS GAA deficiency results in substantial glycogen accumulation in XII motoneuron cell bodies and altered XII motor output. Therapeutic strategies targeting the CNS may be required to fully correct respiratory-related deficits in Pompe disease.