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Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) released from Gram-negative bacteria consist of lipids, proteins, lipopolysaccharides and other molecules. OMVs are associated with several biological functions such as horizontal gene transfer, intracellular and intercellular communication, transfer of contents to host cells, and eliciting an immune response in host cells. Although hypotheses have been made concerning the mechanism of biogenesis of these vesicles, research on OMV formation is far from complete. The roles of outer membrane components, bacterial quorum sensing molecules and some specific proteins in OMV biogenesis have been studied. This review discusses the different models that have been proposed for OMV biogenesis, along with details of the biological functions of OMVs and the likely scope of future research.

The outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) from bacteria are known to posses both defensive and protective functions and thus participate in community related functions. In the present study, outer membrane vesicles have been shown to protect the producer bacterium and two other bacterial species from the growth inhibitory effects of some antibiotics. The OMVs isolated from E. coli MG1655 protected the bacteria against membrane-active antibiotics colistin, melittin. The OMVs of E. coli MG1655 could also protect P. aeruginosa NCTC6751 and A. radiodioresistens MMC5 against these membrane-active antibiotics. However, OMVs could not protect any of these bacteria against the other antibiotics ciprofloxacin, streptomycin and trimethoprim. Hence, OMVs appears to protect the bacterial community against membrane-active antibiotics and not other antibiotics, which have different mechanism of actions. The OMVs of E. coli MG1655 sequester the antibiotic colistin, whereas their protein components degrade the antimicrobial peptide melittin. Proteomic analysis of OMVs revealed the presence of proteases and peptidases which appear to be involved in this process. Thus, the protection of bacteria by OMVs against antibiotics is situation dependent and the mechanism differs for different situations. These studies suggest that OMVs of bacteria form a common defense for the bacterial community against specific antibiotics.

Endoribonuclease E, a key enzyme involved in RNA decay and processing in bacteria, organizes a protein complex called degradosome. In Escherichia coli, Rhodobacter capsulatus, and Streptomyces coelicolor, RNase E interacts with the phosphate-dependent exoribonuclease polynucleotide phosphorylase, DEAD-box helicase(s), and additional factors in an RNA-degrading complex. To characterize the degradosome of the psychrotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae Lz4W, RNase E was enriched by cation exchange chromatography and fractionation in a glycerol density gradient. Most surprisingly, the hydrolytic exoribonuclease RNase R was found to co-purify with RNase E. Co-immunoprecipitation and Ni 2؉ -affinity pull-down experiments confirmed the specific interaction between RNase R and RNase E. Additionally, the DEAD-box helicase RhlE was identified as part of this protein complex. Fractions comprising the three proteins showed RNase E and RNase R activity and efficiently degraded a synthetic stem-loop containing RNA in the presence of ATP. The unexpected association of RNase R with RNase E and RhlE in an RNA-degrading complex indicates that the cold-adapted P. syringae has a degradosome of novel structure. The identification of RNase R instead of polynucleotide phosphorylase in this complex underlines the importance of the interaction between endo-and exoribonucleases for the bacterial RNA metabolism. The physical association of RNase E with an exoribonuclease and an RNA helicase apparently is a common theme in the composition of bacterial RNAdegrading complexes.

The major carotenoid pigments of an Antarctic psychrotolerant bacterium, Sphingobacterium antarcticus, and a mesophilic bacterium, Sphingobacterium multivorum, were identified as zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, and beta-carotene. Analysis was based on ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, and reversed-phase HPLC. Photoacoustic spectroscopy of intact bacterial cells revealed that the bulk of the pigments in S. antarcticus and S. multivorum was associated with the cell membrane. In vitro studies with synthetic membranes of phosphatidylcholine demonstrated that the major pigment was bound to the membranes and decreased their fluidity. The relative amounts of polar pigments were higher in cells grown at 5 degrees C than in cells grown at 25 degrees C. In the mesophilic strain, the synthesis of polar carotenoids was quantitatively less than that of the psychrotolerant strain.

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Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) of Gram-negative bacteria form an important aspect of bacterial physiology as they are involved in various functions essential for their survival. The OMVs of the Antarctic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae Lz4W were isolated, and the proteins and lipids they contain were identified. The matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF/TOF) analysis revealed that phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylglycerols are the main lipid components. The proteins of these vesicles were identified by separating them by one-dimensional gel electrophoresis and liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). They are composed of outer membrane and periplasmic proteins according to the subcellular localization predictions by Psortb v.3 and Cello V2.5. The functional annotation and gene ontology of these proteins provided hints for various functions attributed to OMVs and suggested a potential mechanism to respond to the extracellular environmental changes. The OMVs were found to protect the producer organism against the membrane active antibiotics colistin and melittin but not from streptomycin. The 1-N-phenylnapthylamine (NPN)-uptake assay revealed that the OMVs protect the bacterium from membrane active antibiotics by scavenging them and also showed that membrane and protein packing of the OMVs was similar to the parent bacterium. The sequestering depends on the composition and organization of lipids and proteins in the OMVs.

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