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Key points Spasticity is a disorder of muscle tone that is associated with lesions of the motor system. This condition involves an overactive spinal reflex loop that resists the passive lengthening of muscles. Previously, we established that application of anodal trans‐spinal direct current stimulation (a‐tsDCS) for short periods of time to anaesthetized mice sustaining a spinal cord injury leads to an instantaneous reduction of spasticity. However, the long‐term effects of repeated a‐tsDCS and its mechanism of action remained unknown. In the present study, a‐tsDCS was performed for 7 days and this was found to cause long‐term reduction in spasticity, increased rate‐dependent depression in spinal reflexes, and improved ground and skill locomotion. Pharmacological, molecular and cellular evidence further suggest that a novel mechanism involving Na‐K‐Cl cotransporter isoform 1 mediates the observed long‐term effects of repeated a‐tsDCS. Abstract Spasticity can cause pain, fatigue and sleep disturbances; restrict daily activities such as walking, sitting and bathing; and complicate rehabilitation efforts. Thus, spasticity negatively influences an individual's quality of life and novel therapeutic interventions are needed. We previously demonstrated in anaesthetized mice that a short period of trans‐spinal subthreshold direct current stimulation (tsDCS) reduces spasticity. In the present study, the long‐term effects of repeated tsDCS to attenuate abnormal muscle tone in awake female mice with spinal cord injuries were investigated. A motorized system was used to test velocity‐dependent ankle resistance and associated electromyographical activity. Analysis of ground and skill locomotion was also performed, with electrophysiological, molecular and cellular studies being conducted to reveal a potential underlying mechanism of action. A 4 week reduction in spasticity was associated with an increase in rate‐dependent depression of spinal reflexes, and ground and skill locomotion were improved following 7 days of anodal‐tsDCS (a‐tsDCS). Secondary molecular, cellular and pharmacological experiments further demonstrated that the expression of K‐Cl co‐transporter isoform 2 (KCC2) was not changed in animals with spasticity. However, Na‐K‐Cl cotransporter isoform 1 (NKCC1) was significantly up‐regulated in mice that exhibited spasticity. When mice were treated with a‐tsDCS, down regulation of NKCC1 was detected, and this level did not significantly differ from that in the non‐injured control mice. Thus, long lasting reduction of spasticity by a‐tsDCS via downregulation of NKCC1 may constitute a novel therapy for spasticity following spinal cord injury.

This article analyses why the political transformations following the Arab Spring took different paths in Egypt and Tunisia. Based on data from field interviews conducted between 2012 and 2018 as well as press analyses, we argue that a strong factor why Tunisia was more successful in establishing democracy is that it had a higher level of inter-elite trust. Moreover, we show that the establishment of inter-elite trust depends on the presence of functioning trust-building arenas during the transition and the early democratic consolidation period. To investigate the role of inter-elite trust, we develop a theoretical-analytical framework, drawing on Arab Spring literature, transition theory, scholarship on democratic consolidation, and research on trust.

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Previous work on political tolerance has overwhelmingly focused on established democracies. Consequently, our knowledge continues to be limited with regard to the drivers of tolerance in less democratic transitional and nondemocratic settings. In this paper, we examine what could best promote tolerance of least-favored political groups in such contexts. We use a survey experiment in Egypt to test competing theories through exposing respondents to different primes, emphasizing the importance of tolerance on the basis of religious, economic, or government endorsements. Respondents were then asked questions to gauge their tolerance levels toward their least-favored group. We control for the level of trust in government, religiosity, interpersonal trust, contact, and political knowledge. Our data show soaring levels of intolerance among Egyptians. However, we found evidence that priming respondents with the economic benefits of having a tolerant society is the most effective way to promote tolerant attitudes, especially among those with lower levels of education and younger age groups. Additionally, our analysis demonstrated that respondents’ level of trust in government has a strong effect on tolerance attitudes.

Democracy as a form of civilian rule must navigate a path between clerical and military powers, both of which are highly engaged in the politics of post-Mubarak Egypt. The authors ask in this article how mass support for democracy changed in Egypt between 2011 and 2014, and how this support is connected with views on religion and the role of the military. This question is important for understanding the prospects for democracy in a major state in the Arab world. It is also of comparative interest because of what change in the social and ideological drivers of mass attitudes may tell us about the nature of democratic support more generally. The authors' analysis is based on nationally representative surveys of Egyptians in 2011 after the country's first post-Mubarak parliamentary elections and in 2014 after the removal of the Islamist President Morsi. The findings indicate that Egyptians in large numbers favour both democracy and unfettered military intervention in politics. The authors also observe important shifts in the social bases of support for democracy away from religion but also from economic aspiration. Negative political experience with democratic procedures in 2011-2013 seems to be the strongest factor behind the observed decrease in democratic support.

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