Highlights • Oil penetrates in parfried frozen products during the first minute of deep-frying, and during cooling, once the product is removed from the oil bath. • The mechanisms of oil penetration during frying involves a Carnot cycle mediated by steam between the crust and the frozen core. • All regions connected by fissures are accessible to oil penetration during deep-frying regardless of their water content. • The deep penetration of oil during cooling and immersion stages are under enthalpic control and requires steam condensation. • Surface oil penetration is conversely under entropic control and is possible only when air (non-condensable phase) can be displaced by oil.
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