Abstract:On a global-scale, moths (Lepidoptera) are considered to be important pollinators for many plant families. However, the assumption that moths are also involved in pollination in New Zealand is underpinned by relatively little research. Here we review the evidence for moth pollination of flowering plants in New Zealand and compare the quality of evidence available with that of the global literature. Globally, the majority of experimental studies have focused on the hawkmoths (Sphingidae) and other specialist pollinators, leaving a substantial gap in knowledge concerning the role of smaller and more generalist moths as pollinators. New Zealand lacks native Sphingidae; however, members of Geometridae, Noctuidae and Erebidae, all identified as pollinators globally, are mentioned as flower-visitors in New Zealand more than expected given their family sizes. In addition to these families, Oecophoridae are mentioned as flower-visitors in New Zealand but this has not been documented globally, suggesting new mutualisms may have evolved in New Zealand. Eight plant families: Alseuosmiaceae, Argophyllaceae, Campanulaceae, Gentianaceae, Goodeniaceae, Montiaceae, Pittosporaceae and Stylidiaceae, were mentioned in the context of moth pollination in New Zealand, but not in the global literature. The Orchidaceae family is most frequently mentioned in the context of moth pollination globally, but was not mentioned at all in the New Zealand literature, despite two endemic genera, Winika and Earina, showing floral features suggestive of moth pollination. The evidence to support pollination by moths in New Zealand comes predominantly from observations of flower-visitation and assumptions based on floral features. As this is not proof of effective pollen transfer, detailed experimental studies are required before the importance of moths as pollinators in New Zealand can be accurately gauged.Tuhika Whakarāpopoto: Ki te ao whānui, he whakaaiai whakahirahira kā pepe (Lepidoptera) ki kā tipu whaipua. Heoi, he iti noa te puna rakahau hai taunaki i te whakatatau he orite te mahi a kā pepe i Aotearoa me Te Waipounamu ('Aotearoa'). Ka tātari mātou i te rakahau e hākai ana ki te whakaaiai ā-pepe i kā tipu whaipua i Aotearoa, ā, ka whakatairite i te pai o te puna rakahau ki Aotearoa nei ki tō te ao. Ka arotahi te nuika o kā tuhika rakahau ā-ao ki kā ko Pepe Hīhue (Sphingidae) me ētahi atu pepe whakaaiai tauwhāiti. Kāore kā tuhika ā-ao e tirohia whānuitia te mahi a kā pepe iti iho me kā pepe mahi tauwhānui hai whakaaiai. Kāore he Sphingidae taketake ki Aotearoa, ekari ko ētahi pepe ko Pepe Tāwhana (Geometridae), ko Pepe Whānui (Noctuidae) ko Pepe Mokarakara (Erebidae) hoki, e mōhiotia ana he whakaaiai i kā tuhika ā-ao, ka meatia ki kā tuhika ā-Aotearoa he kaitoro-pua i kā wā maha, ahakoa te iti o ō rātou momo. I kitea hoki kā pepe Oecophoridae e toro-pua ana i kā tuhika ā-Aotearoa, kāore i kitea i kā tuhika ā-ao: he tohu pea ko panoni ētahi whakahoahoa hou ki Aotearoa. E waru kā momo tipu: Alseuosmiaceae, Argophyllaceae, Campanulaceae,...
Avocado (Persea americana) has synchronously protogynous flowers: flowers open first in female phase before closing and opening the next day in male phase. Cultivars are grouped based on whether the flowers typically first open in female phase in the morning (type A), or in the afternoon (type B). However, it is known that environmental factors can alter the timing of flower opening, with cold temperatures being shown to affect the timing of flowering. The aim of this study was to investigate how low spring temperatures in New Zealand affect the flowering cycle of commercial avocado cultivars, focusing primarily on the receptive female phase of ‘Hass’, a type A cultivar. Time-lapse photography was used to assess flower opening times of ‘Hass’ over three years. Decreasing minimum overnight temperatures were associated with a delay in the timing of ‘Hass’ female flower phases and resulted in nocturnal flowering of both male and female phase flowers. We recorded insects visiting female flowers at night, and some nocturnal flower visitors collected were carrying avocado pollen. Our study suggests that nocturnal pollination needs to be considered for avocados grown in temperate regions. Furthermore, as the timing of the female phase of ‘Hass’ varied significantly with overnight temperature, the activity patterns of potential pollinators need to be considered to ensure adequate pollinator activity across the range of times in which ‘Hass’ flowers are receptive.
Pollinating insects are critical to ecosystem stability and food security. Concerns about the impact of insect declines have therefore seen increased research on the role of wild pollinators in cropping systems. However, this research has predominantly focused on diurnal pollinators such as bees and flies, leaving the role of nocturnal pollinators poorly understood in comparison. Here, we review the literature on nocturnal pollinators of food crops and medicinal plants by undertaking an abstract, title, and keyword literature search in Web of Science Core Collection [v.5.32]. We found interactions recorded between plants and nocturnal pollinators for 52 plant families, with Cactaceae, Fabaceae and Asparagaceae being mentioned most frequently in the context of nocturnal pollination. We identified 81 animal families that behave as nocturnal crop pollinators, with Sphingidae and Noctuidae moths and Phyllostomidae bats being mentioned most frequently. The evidence to support claims of pollination by nocturnally active animals varied in strength and mostly involved observations of flower visitation or pollination being inferred based on floral traits. There was a lack of strong experimental evidence. Detailed experimental work, such as pollinator exclusion experiments, is therefore required to corroborate the patterns we have discovered. Our review is biased towards publications in the English language, but despite this our study shows tropical regions such as Brazil appear to be hotspots for nocturnal crop pollination. Policy implications. Our findings suggest that nocturnal pollinators visit a large range of crop plants, and may be more important to ecosystem function and food production than currently thought. Current policies in cropping systems implemented to protect bees, such as regulations on pesticide use, are unlikely to also protect nocturnal pollinators. As we develop a better understanding of the importance of nocturnal pollinators for crop plants, many of these regulations may need to be updated to ensure pollination service is not being compromised.
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