This investigation studied language sampling with normal four- and six-year-old children in three conditions: (1) conversation; (2) picture description with the experimenter and child looking at the stimuli; and (3) picture description with the experimenter unable to view the stimuli with the child. The results show statistically significant differences in Developmental Sentence Score and MLU between the age groups and among the experimental conditions. They suggest that children of these ages are able to alter their linguistic behavior as a result of the listener’s perspective. Implications for language sampling and future research are discussed.
Background and PurposeCurrent therapies for ischemic stroke focus on reperfusion but do not address the acute inflammatory response that results in significant reperfusion injury. To advance future therapies, a thorough understanding of the precise spatiotemporal underpinnings of leukocyte extravasation and infiltration is necessary. We describe the evolution of the inflammatory response in a mouse transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) stroke model at several time points after reperfusion and the modulation of this response with PECAM blockade.MethodsThe transient Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion model (90 minutes of ischemia followed by reperfusion) was used to simulate large vessel occlusion stroke and recanalization. We used wide field and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy to examine the exact distribution of neutrophils with close examination of the leukocyte position with regard to the brain vasculature and the perivascular space. Flow cytometry of single cell suspensions was used to confirm cell identity at different time points post‐stroke.ResultsLarge ischemic strokes involving both the subcortex and cortex (over 20% of the ischemic hemisphere) were induced in mice. At 12 and 24 hours, leukocyte recruitment and extravasation was primarily localized to the cortical surface. This contrasts with other organs where there is considerable migration of neutrophils deep into the inflamed tissue by 24 hours. Flow cytometry showed at 24 hours a majority of leukocytes were neutrophils. Over 48 to 72 hours, leukocytes were increasingly found deeper into the subcortex. Throughout the infarct (determined with triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining), leukocyte recruitment was not uniform but rather organized in clusters. Disrupting leukocyte diapedesis with PECAM function‐blocking monoclonal antibody restricted leukocytes to within 500 microns of the surface when compared to control; and this was still evident at 72 hours (n=3 mice per group, p<0.01, Control 46% ± 4.0 %; PECAM‐1 Ab 62% ± 5.0%). High‐resolution wide‐field microscopy confirmed inhibition of TEM by PECAM‐1 blockade at 24 hours. Flow cytometry showed approximately equal numbers of monocytes and neutrophils at 72 hours.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate that leukocyte infiltration into a stroke evolves over several days following reperfusion. The use of PECAM blockade modulates the natural progression of leukocytes into the infarcted stroke bed. A better understanding of leukocyte spatiotemporal infiltration and its regulators could help inform the next generation of therapeutic interventions.
Thirty pung childmn with handicaps were assessed using a series of five self-recognition mirm tasks developed by Bettentha1 and Fischer (1978a, 1978b). The task data were submitted to a Guttman Scalogram. Generalh the set o f items did form a mproducibh? scale, indicating these tasks are an a w p f i a t e measure of se#-mognitim in young children with handicaps. Howaec some general differences m nded between task performance by this sample and those reported by the authors for nonhandicapped p n g chddren, particular4 results obtained on task 1 (tactual exploration of the mirror). A partial correlation technique, controlling for chronological age, indicated that stage of self-recognition is posi?imly and significantly related to cognitiw? development or mental age. Fbssible explanations for the &sen& drikrences are presented, abng with recommendations for future research.
Twelve children with learning disabilities attending a remedial summer clinic were compared with 12 normally achieving controls balanced for age, sex, and handedness on alpha amplitude and production of narratives. Specifically, all subjects participated in three conditions. Condition 1 was a vigilance condition, Condition 2 involved listening to a story without an ending that had to be retold, and Condition 3 was an opportunity to rehearse the story mentally and construct an appropriate ending. Alpha amplitudes were monitored during the three conditions to determine any hemispheric asymmetry or differences between groups or conditions in alpha production. The subjects' narrative productions of retelling the story with a novel ending were also analyzed using a cohesion analysis procedure. The results showed no significant differences between the groups in alpha amplitude, but there was a significant task effect with the vigilance condition, story comprehension, and rehearsal showing decreasing alpha amplitudes in both groups of subjects. Analysis of the narratives showed the group with learning disabilities to produce significantly shorter and less cohesive stories. Results are discussed in relation to other studies of hemispheric processing differences in populations with learning disabilities.
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