This article discusses the multiscale nature of modelling in archaeology and its relationship with higher-level spatial analysis. The application and purpose of modelling in archaeology is as varied as the multidisciplinary field itself. With the increasing integration of geographical information systems (GIS) and other digital methods into the archaeological workflow, both new opportunities and potential pitfalls present themselves. The struggle of balancing informal inferences of human behaviour in a formal system, such as GIS, has been the subject of much discussion, as well as the questioning of whether some modelling tasks would be better suited for implementation outside the GIS environment. Higher-level spatial analysis is dependent on a number of lower-level models, each building on the other, inheriting both information and uncertainties. These nuances can be difficult to demonstrate clearly once they have been incorporated into another model, potentially obscured further when restricted by the “geographical space” that is central to GIS. Rather than forcing informal models into a formal environment, an alternative would be to opt instead for the visualization of these within the more flexible “variable space,” where the data are front and centre, and spatial and temporal concepts can function as a means of explaining patterns in the model. This article discusses aspects of the challenges and opportunities involved in these types of analysis and provides examples of alternate approaches that could be considered non-spatial.
Large-scale sublevel cave mining (SLC) remains the mining method of choice for efficient underground mining of iron ore at the Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara AB (LKAB) mines in Kiruna and Malmberget, northern Sweden. However, SLC mining ultimately results in ground deformations above active mining areas, thus necessitating relocation of surface infrastructure and/or residential areas within the locations containing large and damaging deformations. Moreover, caving may also affect underground infrastructure and a prediction methodology for both surface effects and underground infrastructure is warranted. A coupled CAVESIM-FLAC3D model was developed for the LKAB Malmberget mine. Initially, a mine-scale model with the centrally located major orebodies was set up for detailed analysis of critical infrastructure. This was followed by an extended model in which all orebodies and production areas (approximately 20 of them) were included. Large-scale geological structures were included in the model, as well as the local geology. The coupled modelling approach enables simulating production and material flow, as well as the rock mass response outside the caved volumes. Production was simulated from the start of mining up until today and the model calibrated against observed cave cratering on the ground surface and inferred cave shapes from seismic monitoring, followed by model validation against measured ground surface deformations. The calibrated model was then run for future mining and a planned production increase, up until the year 2070. The results were evaluated with respect to: (i) surface cave cratering, (ii) ground surface deformations, (iii) strains on the ground surface and (iv) cave shapes and deformations around critical underground infrastructure.Alternative re-locations of underground infrastructure were compared and stability conditions quantified, as input for planning decisions made by the mine. For the ground surface, the model results provided a quantitative prediction of which areas will be affected, both spatially and temporally. For areas within the Malmberget township, these predictions are critical for planning and execution of the ongoing urban transformation. Moreover, the model provided predictions of ground surface affects within and near the industrial area, as input to future location of planned new surface infrastructure. The coupled modelling approach and the extensive calibration process was instrumental in developing reliable and accurate predictions for the continued mining at the Malmberget mine.
Building databases and research tools for archaeological and environmental data, and maximizing their accessibility for a broad spectrum of potential users, is a non-trivial problem which can be approached in a number of different ways. Different user groups require different points of entry, are interested in different levels of detail, and require different levels of access, filters and visualizations. A single user interface may provide for an efficient, multiproxy approach for large scale syntheses, but may at the same time alienate specialists. This chapter will discuss some of these issues, drawing on experience from a number of international projects at different scales, including 1) The Bugs Coleopteran Ecology Package (BugsCEP), an ecology orientated fossil insect database; 2) The Strategic Environmental Archaeology Database (SEAD), a multiproxy data infrastructure for archaeological science; and 3) DataARC, an inter-archive data discovery tool which links databases through concepts rather than data. The chapter concludes with an extended list of Grand Challenges for research data infrastructure for archaeology to help others navigate this theme.
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