The obesity epidemic has led to an increased incidence of non–alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and type 2 diabetes. AMP–activated protein kinase (Ampk) regulates energy homeostasis and is activated by cellular stress, hormones and the widely prescribed anti–type 2 diabetic drug metformin1,2. Ampk phosphorylates murine acetyl–CoA carboxylase3,4 (Acc) 1 at Ser79 and Acc2 at Ser212, inhibiting the conversion of acetyl–CoA to malonyl–CoA, a precursor in fatty acid synthesis5 as well as an allosteric inhibitor of fatty acid transport into mitochondria for oxidation6. To test the physiological impact of these phosphorylation events we generated mice with alanine knock–in mutations in both Acc1 (Ser79) and Acc2 (Ser212) (Acc double knock–in, AccDKI). These mice have elevated lipogenesis and lower fatty acid oxidation compared to wild–type (WT) mice, which contribute to the progression of insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and NAFLD, but not obesity. Remarkably, AccDKI mice made obese by high–fat feeding, are refractory to the lipid–lowering and insulin–sensitizing effects of metformin. These findings establish that inhibitory phosphorylation of Acc by Ampk is essential for the control of lipid metabolism, and in the setting of obesity, for metformin–induced improvements in insulin action.

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a metabolic stress-sensing αβγ heterotrimer responsible for energy homeostasis, making it a therapeutic target for metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and obesity. AMPK signaling is triggered by phosphorylation on the AMPK α subunit activation loop Thr172 by upstream kinases. Dephosphorylated, naive AMPK is thought to be catalytically inactive and insensitive to allosteric regulation by AMP and direct AMPK-activating drugs such as A-769662. Here we show that A-769662 activates AMPK independently of α-Thr172 phosphorylation, provided β-Ser108 is phosphorylated. Although neither A-769662 nor AMP individually stimulate the activity of dephosphorylated AMPK, together they stimulate >1,000-fold, bypassing the requirement for β-Ser108 phosphorylation. Consequently A-769662 and AMP together activate naive AMPK entirely allosterically and independently of upstream kinase signaling. These findings have important implications for development of AMPK-targeting therapeutics and point to possible combinatorial therapeutic strategies based on AMP and AMPK drugs.

Retinoic acid receptor (RAR) signaling is required for morphogenesis of the ventral optic cup and closure of the choroid fissure, but the mechanisms by which this pathway regulates ventral eye development remain controversial and poorly understood. Although previous studies have implicated neural crest-derived periocular mesenchyme (POM) as the critical target of RA action in the eye, we show here that RAR signaling regulates choroid fissure closure in zebrafish by acting on both the ventral optic cup and the POM. We describe RAR-dependent regulation of eight genes in the neuroepithelial cells of the ventral retina and optic stalk and of six genes in the POM and show that these ventral retina/optic stalk and POM genes function independently of each other. Consequently, RAR signaling regulates ventral eye development through two independent, nonredundant mechanisms in different ocular tissues. Furthermore, the identification of two cohorts of genes implicated in ventral eye morphogenesis may help to elucidate the genetic basis of ocular coloboma in humans.