The 274 tRNA genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are scattered throughout the linear maps of the 16 chromosomes, but the genes are clustered at the nucleolus when compacted in the nucleus. This clustering is dependent on intact nucleolar organization and contributes to tRNA gene-mediated (tgm) silencing of RNA polymerase II transcription near tRNA genes. After examination of the localization mechanism, we find that the chromosome-condensing complex, condensin, is involved in the clustering of tRNA genes. Conditionally defective mutations in all five subunits of condensin, which we confirm is bound to active tRNA genes in the yeast genome, lead to loss of both pol II transcriptional silencing near tRNA genes and nucleolar clustering of the genes. Furthermore, we show that condensin physically associates with a subcomplex of RNA polymerase III transcription factors on the tRNA genes. Clustering of tRNA genes by condensin appears to be a separate mechanism from their nucleolar localization, as microtubule disruption releases tRNA gene clusters from the nucleolus, but does not disperse the clusters. These observations suggest a widespread role for condensin in gene organization and packaging of the interphase yeast nucleus.[Keywords: tRNA gene; condensin; microtubules; nuclear organization; nucleolus] Supplemental material is available at http://www.genesdev.org.

Summary The association of type 2 diabetes with elevated plasma triglyceride (TG) and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), and intrahepatic lipid accumulation represents a pathophysiological enigma and an unmet therapeutic challenge. Here we uncover a link between insulin action through FoxO1, bile acid (BA) composition, and altered lipid homeostasis that brings new insight to this longstanding conundrum. FoxO1 ablation brings about two signature lipid abnormalities of diabetes and the metabolic syndrome, elevated liver and plasma TG. These changes are associated with deficiency of 12α-hydroxylated BAs and their synthetic enzyme, Cyp8b1, that hinders the TG-lowering effects of the BA receptor, Fxr. Accordingly, pharmacological activation of Fxr with GW4064 overcomes the BA imbalance, restoring hepatic and plasma TG levels of FoxO1-deficient mice to normal levels. We propose that generation of 12α-hydroxylated products of BA metabolism represents a signaling mechanism linking hepatic lipid abnormalities with type 2 diabetes, and a treatment target for this condition.

Background & Aims Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), the most conserved mammalian NAD+-dependent protein deacetylase, is an important metabolic sensor in many tissues. However, little is known about its role in the small intestine, which absorbs and senses nutrients. We investigated the functions of intestinal Sirt1 in systemic bile acid and cholesterol metabolism in mice. Methods Sirt1 was specifically deleted from intestines of mice using the Flox-villin-Cre system (Sirt1 iKO mice). Intestinal and heptic tissues were collected, and bile acid absorption was analyzed using the everted gut sac experiment. Systemic bile acid metabolism was studied in Sirt1 iKO and Flox control mice placed on standard diets, diets containing 0.5% cholic acid or 1.25% cholesterol, or lithogenic diets. Results Sirt1 iKO mice had reduced intestinal Fxr signaling via Hnf1a compared with controls, which reduced expression of the bile acid transporter genes Asbt and Mcf2l (encodes Ost) and absorption of ileal bile acids. Sirt1 regulated Hnf1α–Fxr signaling partially through Dcoh2, which increases dimerization of Hnf1α. Sirt1 was found to deacetylate DCoH2, promoting its interaction with Hnf1α and inducing DNA binding by Hnf1α. Intestine-specific deletion of Sirt1 increased hepatic bile acid biosynthesis, reduced hepatic accumulation of bile acids, and protected animals from liver damage from high-bile acid diets. Conclusions Intestinal Sirt1, a key nutrient sensor, is required for ileal bile acid absorption and systemic bile acid homeostasis in mice. We delineated the mechanism of metabolic regulation of Hnf1α–Fxr signaling. Reagents designed to inhibit intestinal SIRT1 might be developed to treat bile acid-related diseases such as cholestasis.

Significance This study provides new insight into the requirements for observed silencing of RNA polymerase II transcription near tRNA genes. Mod5 is a conserved tRNA modification enzyme found in both the nucleus and cytoplasm, although it only modifies tRNAs in the cytoplasm. Mod5 is required for silencing near tRNA genes, and it is bound to both nuclear tRNA gene complexes and nuclear pre-tRNA transcripts. Possible mechanisms for this form of RNA-mediated transcriptional silencing are discussed.

Studies in microsomal and reconstituted systems have shown that the presence of one cytochrome P450 isoform can significantly influence the catalytic activity of another isoform. In this study, we assessed whether CYP2E1 could influence the catalytic activity of CYP2B4 under steady-state turnover conditions. The results show that CYP2E1 inhibits CYP2B4-mediated metabolism of benzphetamine (BNZ) with a K i of 0.04 mM. However, CYP2B4 is not an inhibitor of CYP2E1-mediated p-nitrophenol hydroxylation. When these inhibition studies were performed with the artificial oxidant tert-butyl hydroperoxide, CYP2E1 did not significantly inhibit CYP2B4 activity. Determinations of the apparent K M and k cat of CYP2B4 for CPR in the presence of increasing concentrations of CYP2E1 revealed a mixed inhibition of CYP2B4 by CYP2E1. At low concentrations of CYP2E1, the apparent K M of CYP2B4 for CPR increased up to 23-fold with virtually no change in the k cat for the reaction, however, at higher concentrations of CYP2E1, the apparent K M of CYP2B4 for CPR decreased to levels similar to those observed in the absence of CYP2E1 and the k cat also decreased by 11-fold. Additionally, CYP2E1 increased the apparent K M of CYP2B4 for BNZ by 8-fold and the apparent K M did not decrease to its original value when saturating concentrations of CPR were used. While the individual apparent K M values of CYP2B4 and CYP2E1 for CPR are similar, the apparent K M of CYP2E1 for CPR in the presence of CYP2B4 decreased significantly, thus suggesting that CYP2B4 enhances the affinity of CYP2E1 for CPR and this may allow CYP2E1 to outcompete CYP2B4 for CPR.

Aldo-keto reductases (Akrs) are a conserved group of NADPHdependent oxido-reductase enzymes. This study provides a comprehensive examination of the tissue distribution of the 16 substrate-metabolizing Akrs in mice, their expression during development, and whether they are altered by chemicals that activate distinct transcriptional factor pathways. Akr1c6, 1c14, 1c20, and 1c22 are primarily present in liver; Akr1a4, 1c18, 1c21, and 7a5 in kidney; Akr1d1 in liver and kidney; Akr1b7 in small intestine; Akr1b3 and Akr1e1 in brain; Akr1b8 in testes; Akr1c14 in ovaries; and Akrs1c12, 1c13, and 1c19 are expressed in numerous tissues. Liver expression of Akr1d1 and Akr1c is lowest during prenatal and postnatal development. However, by 20 days of age, liver Akr1d1 increases 120-fold, and Akr1c mRNAs increase as much as 5-fold (Akr1c19) to 1000-fold (Akr1c6). Treatment of mice with chemical activators of transcription factors constitutive androgen receptor (CAR), pregnane X receptor (PXR), and the nuclear factor-erythroid-2 (Nrf2) transcription factor alters liver mRNAs of Akrs. Specifically, CAR activation by 1,4-bis[2-(3,5-dichloropyridyloxy)]benzene (TCPOBOP) increases mRNAs of Akr1b7, Akr1c6, Akr1c19, and Akr1d1, whereas PXR activation by 5-pregnenolone-16a-carbonitrile (PCN) increases the mRNA of Akr1b7 and suppresses mRNAs of Akr1c13 and Akr1c20. The Nrf2 activator 2-cyano-3,12-dioxooleana-1,9-dien-28-imidazolide (CDDO-Im) induces mRNAs of Akr1c6 and Akr1c19. Moreover, Nrf2-null and Nrf2 overexpressing mice demonstrate that this induction is Nrf2-dependent.

Mod5 is the yeast tRNA isopentenyl transferase, an enzyme that is conserved from bacteria to humans. Mod5 is primarily cytoplasmic where it modifies the A37 position of a few tRNAs, and the yeast enzyme has been shown capable of forming heritable, amyloid-like aggregates that confer a selective advantage in the presence of specific antifungal agents. A subpopulation of Mod5 is also found associated with nuclear tRNA genes, where it contributes tRNA-gene mediated (tgm) silencing of local transcription by RNA polymerase II. The tgm-silencing function of Mod5 has been observed in yeast and a Mod5-deletion in yeast can be complemented by the plant and human tRNA isopentenyl transferases, but not the bacterial enzymes, possibly due to the lack of an extended C-terminal domain found in eukaryotes. In light of this additional nuclear role for Mod5 we discuss the proposed role of the human homologue of Mod5, TRIT1, as a tumor suppressor protein.

ABSTRACT:Although the ability of disulfiram to inactivate CYP2E1 has been known for more than 20 years, the mechanism has not yet been