We investigate the role of glacier structures in controlling ice-front morphology and dynamics of four Himalayan lake-terminating glaciers over a 20-year period.At Imja, Trakarding, Lumdin and Dang Pu glaciers, lake area was mapped between 2000 and 2020 using Landsat 5/7/8 and Sentinel-2 imagery. Discrete glacier flow units were identified, with glacier structures (e.g., open crevasses, transverse structures, longitudinal structures) digitised using the finest resolution panchromatic bands in each year (30, 15, or 10 m). Mapping revealed a distinct pattern of transverse structures towards the terminus of each glacier that influence ice-front position and morphology and are then exploited via iceberg calving events. Our structural analysis also illustrates the role of subsurface conduits in calving events.During subsurface conduit collapse, glacier recession is enhanced, leading to calving along adjacent transverse structures. Furthermore, our analysis shows that ice-front morphology influences the pattern of glacier recession. Ice fronts with distinct ice aprons undergo slower periods of recession than ice fronts with ice cliffs. We conclude that glacier structures are important in determining ice-front morphologies at lake-terminating Himalayan glaciers, and therefore, structural analysis is vital when assessing future ice-front positions and behaviour, as well as rates of glacier recession.
<p>Understanding the evolution of debris-covered glaciers in High Mountain Asia is important for making informed projections of climate change impacts and associated water security and hazard-related issues. &#160;Here we describe the geomorphology of Ponkar Glacier, a debris-covered glacier in Nepal using high-resolution images from 2017 and 2019 based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) flights collected over the glacier and surrounding area in the field. These are used to describe the overall glacier morphology and its ice-surface geomorphology.&#160; The key features of the glacier and its ice-surface morphology are described, including size and extent of tributary glaciers; changes in % of debris cover, lakes, ponds, ice cliffs, crevasses, and vegetation. Geomorphological mapping is used to describe the proglacial geomorphology, outwash plains and proglacial streams, the development of new ice-marginal ponds and changes in vegetation. We use these data to make inferences about the processes of moraine formation in this area.&#160;</p>
Understanding the evolution of debris-covered glaciers in High Mountain Asia, the physical processes governing the effect of debris cover on mass balance, and the response of debris-covered glaciers to climatic change are key for assessing water resources, the contribution of glaciers to sea level rise and the potential for glacier related hazards such as glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) related to moraine-dammed lakes. Here we illustrate the effects of recent glacier recession on the development of landforms and sediments at Ponkar Glacier, a debris-covered glacier in the Manaslu area of the Nepal Himalaya using a combination of 2019 RapidEye satellite image (5 m spatial resolution), drone imagery (50 cm) and field observations. We describe the key features of the glacier and its ice-surface morphology, including size and extent of flow units and tributary glaciers, supraglacial features of the debris cover and vegetation. Geomorphological mapping is used to describe the moraines, proglacial geomorphology, outwash plains and proglacial streams, the development of new ice-marginal ponds and changes in vegetation. Moraines generally have steep and rapidly degrading inner faces and mature vegetation, including trees, on their outer flanks. They are typically composed of diamicton and silty or sandy boulder gravel. Large outer moraines are separated from the surrounding valley sides by 'ablation valleys'. We conclude by putting the landforms and sediments developed at Ponkar Glacier into a discussion of the likely future evolution of high-elevation debris-covered glaciers.
<p>As glaciers in the Himalaya have lost mass, their proglacial lakes have expanded. Despite increasing interest in hazard assessment and mitigation of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) over more than the last two decades, the role of glacier structures in controlling patterns and rates of glacier recession, and subsequently of lake expansion, have not yet been investigated in detail. This study aims to identify and map glacier structures over a 20-year period and investigate their significance in ice front recession. Four glacial lakes and their associated debris-covered glaciers have been examined in the Everest Region of Nepal and China: Imja Tsho, Tsho Rolpa, Lumdin Tsho, and Dang Pu Tsho. Lake area was mapped between 2000 and 2020 using images acquired from Landsat 5/7/8 and Sentinel 2. Discrete glacier flow units were identified and specific structures were digitised using the finest-resolution panchromatic bands.&#160;We reveal a distinct pattern of transverse features across each glacier that can be related to ice frontal position through time. While this is not the only controlling factor contributing towards ice front recession from lake-terminating glaciers in the Himalaya, it is clear that pre-existing structures influence the ice front shape and are involved in ice front deterioration. These observations could be used to indicate future ice front positions and behaviour, and rates of glacier recession and of lake expansion.&#160; This would also enable GLOF hazard assessments to include more detailed glaciological factors and help in the recognition of such legacy structures in the behaviour of stagnant debris-covered ice masses that are part of terminal moraine complexes.</p>
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