At the end of the last century, genetic studies reported that genetic information is not transmitted solely by DNA, but is also transmitted by other mechanisms, named as epigenetics. The well-described epigenetic mechanisms include DNA methylation, biochemical modifications of histones, and microRNAs. The role of altered epigenetics in the biology of various fibrotic diseases is well-established, and recent advances demonstrate its importance in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis—predominantly referring to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, the most lethal of the interstitial lung diseases. The deficiency in effective medications suggests an urgent need to better understand the underlying pathobiology. This review summarizes the current knowledge concerning epigenetic changes in pulmonary fibrosis and associations of these changes with several cellular pathways of known significance in its pathogenesis. It also designates the most promising substances for further research that may bring us closer to new therapeutic options.

Background: Cervical spine lesions are a common manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The purpose of this study was to conduct a retrospective analysis of radiological lesions in cervical spine in patients with RA and to correlate findings with clinical and laboratory parameters. Methods: Overall, 240 consecutive patients with RA were referred for imaging by clinicians based on symptoms suggesting cervical spine involvement and/or long disease duration. In each patient, lateral radiographs and MRI of the cervical spine were performed. The imaging data were correlated with clinical records and laboratory data. Results: The cervical spine was affected in 179 patients (75%). The most common lesions were anterior atlanto-axial subluxation (AAS; 58%), subaxial subluxation (58%), and demineralization (48%). Cervical spine involvement was linked to longer disease duration (p = 0.007), the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF; p = 0.010), elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) levels (p = 0.016), and accelerated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR; p = 0.025). Longer disease duration was associated with anterior AAS (p = 0.005), subaxial subluxation (p = 0.005), and basilar settling (p = 0.003). Conclusions: As many as 75% of RA patients develop lesions that can be observed on radiographs and through MRI. The most frequent radiological findings include anterior AAS and subaxial subluxation. Long disease duration, RF seropositivity, and elevated inflammatory markers were risk factors for cervical spine involvement.

Background: Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most common rheumatic disease among children. In some patients, cervical spine arthritis remains a serious and chronic manifestation of JIA. The aim of this study was to assess the frequency of cervical spine lesions on radiographs and MRI in JIA patients with clinical signs of cervical spine involvement and to verify if with the addition of MRI, the use of radiographs could be abandoned. Methods: This retrospective study evaluated consecutive 34 children (25 girls; aged 6–18 years, median 15.5 years) with JIA and with clinical involvement of cervical spine. In each patient, both radiographs and MRI of the cervical spine were performed. Imaging findings were correlated with clinical and laboratory data. Results: The cervical spine was affected in 35% of patients. The most frequent lesions were subaxial subluxations (SAS; 24%), apophyseal joint ankylosis (9%), and C1/C2 joint lesions (9%). Anterior atlanto-axial subluxation (AAS) was diagnosed only by radiography, and most of the SAS were seen on radiography, whereas only a few on MRI. Reversely, C1/C2 soft tissue involvement were seen on MRI only. Cervical spine involvement was associated with raised ESR (p = 0.012) and CRP (p = 0.014). Conclusions: The cervical spine lesions are still frequent complication of JIA affecting up to 35% of JIA patients. Most of them develop serious complications, such as AAS and ankylosis. Despite advantages of MRI in terms of the imaging of the atlanto-axial region radiography shows superiority in diagnosis of AAS and SAS.

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