SummaryIn addition to its well-known role as a crosslinker of actin filaments at focal-adhesion sites, actinin-4 is known to be localized to the nucleus. In this study, we reveal the molecular mechanism underlying nuclear localization of actinin-4 and its novel interactions with transcriptional regulators. We found that actinin-4 is imported into the nucleus through the nuclear pore complex in an importinindependent manner and is exported by the chromosome region maintenance-1 (CRM1)-dependent pathway. Nuclear actinin-4 levels were significantly increased in the late G2 phase of the cell cycle and were decreased in the G1 phase, suggesting that active release from the actin cytoskeleton was responsible for increased nuclear actinin-4 in late G2. Nuclear actinin-4 was found to interact with the INO80 chromatin-remodeling complex. It also directs the expression of a subset of cell-cycle-related genes and interacts with the upstream-binding factor (UBF)-dependent rRNA transcriptional machinery in the M phase. These findings provide molecular mechanisms for both nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of proteins that do not contain a nuclear-localization signal and cell-cycle-dependent gene regulation that reflects morphological changes in the cytoskeleton.

The dynamics of the cell membrane and submembrane structures are closely linked, facilitating various cellular activities. Although cell surface research and cortical actin studies have shown independent mechanisms for the cell membrane and the actin network, it has been difficult to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of these structures in live cells. Here, we used a combined atomic force/optical microscope system to analyze membrane-based cellular events at nanometer-scale resolution in live cells. Imaging the COS-7 cell surface showed detailed structural properties of membrane invagination events corresponding to endocytosis and exocytosis. In addition, the movement of mitochondria and the spatiotemporal dynamics of the cortical F-actin network were directly visualized in vivo. Cortical actin microdomains with sizes ranging from 1.7 3 10 4 to 1.4 3 10 5 nm 2 were dynamically rearranged by newly appearing actin filaments, which sometimes accompanied membrane invaginations, suggesting that these events are integrated with the dynamic regulation of submembrane organizations maintained by actin turnovers. These results provide novel insights into the structural aspects of the entire cell membrane machinery which can be visualized with high temporal and spatial resolution.

Together with lamellipodia and stress fibers, a dynamic network of actin filaments in the cell cortex plays a major role in the maintenance of cell morphology and motility. In contrast to lamellipodia, which have been well studied in various motile cells, the dynamics of actin filaments in the cell cortex have not yet been clarified due to a lack of proper imaging techniques. Here, we utilized high-speed atomic force microscopy for live-cell imaging and analyzed cortical actin dynamics in living cells. We successfully measured the polymerization rate and the frequency of filament synthesis in living COS-7 cells, and examined the associated effects of various inhibitors and actin-binding proteins. Actin filaments are synthesized beneath the plasma membrane and eventually descend into the cytoplasm. The inhibitors, cytochalasin B inhibited the polymerization, while jasplakinolide, inhibited the turnover of actin filaments as well as descension of the newly synthesized filaments, suggesting that actin polymerization near the membrane drives turnover of the cortical actin meshwork. We also determined how actin turnover is maintained and regulated by the free G-actin pool and G-actin binding proteins such as profilin and thymosin β4, and found that only a small amount of free G-actin was present in the cortex. Finally, we analyzed several different cell types, and found that the mesh size and the orientation of actin filaments were highly divergent, indicating the involvement of various actin-binding proteins in the maintenance and regulation of cortical actin architecture in each cell type.

The nuclear matrix has classically been assumed to be a solid structure coherently aligning nuclear components, but its real nature remains obscure. We separated the proteins in a ribonucleoproteincontaining nuclear matrix fraction of HeLa cells by reversed-phase HPLC followed by SDS-PAGE, and identified 83 proteins through peptide mass fingerprint (PMF) analysis. Many nucleolar proteins, classical nuclear matrix proteins, RNA binding proteins, cytoskeletal proteins and five uncharacterized proteins were identified in this fraction. Four of the latter proteins were localized to the cell nucleus, BXDC1 and EBNA1BP2 being especially localized to the nucleolus. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and RNAi knockdown analyses suggested that BXDC1 and EBNA1BP2 function in a dynamic scaffold for ribosome biogenesis.

Karyopherin β family proteins mediate the nuclear/cytoplasmic transport of various proteins through the nuclear pore complex (NPC), although they are substantially larger than the size limit of the NPC.To elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying this paradoxical function, we focused on the unique structures called HEAT repeats, which consist of repetitive amphiphilic α helices. An in vitro transport assay and FRAP analyses demonstrated that not only karyopherin β family proteins but also other proteins with HEAT repeats could pass through the NPC by themselves, and serve as transport mediators for their binding partners. Biochemical and spectroscopic analyses and molecular dynamics simulations of purified HEAT-rich proteins revealed that they interact with hydrophobic groups, including phenyl and alkyl groups, and undergo reversible conformational changes in tertiary structures, but not in secondary structures. These results show that conformational changes in the flexible amphiphilic motifs play a critical role in translocation through the NPC.

Audible sound is a ubiquitous environmental factor in nature that transmits oscillatory compressional pressure through the substances. To investigate the property of the sound as a mechanical stimulus for cells, an experimental system was set up using 94.0 dB sound which transmits approximately 10 mPa pressure to the cultured cells. Based on research on mechanotransduction and ultrasound effects on cells, gene responses to the audible sound stimulation were analyzed by varying several sound parameters: frequency, wave form, composition, and exposure time. Real-time quantitative PCR analyses revealed a distinct suppressive effect for several mechanosensitive and ultrasound-sensitive genes that were triggered by sounds. The effect was clearly observed in a wave form- and pressure level-specific manner, rather than the frequency, and persisted for several hours. At least two mechanisms are likely to be involved in this sound response: transcriptional control and RNA degradation. ST2 stromal cells and C2C12 myoblasts exhibited a robust response, whereas NIH3T3 cells were partially and NB2a neuroblastoma cells were completely insensitive, suggesting a cell type-specific response to sound. These findings reveal a cell-level systematic response to audible sound and uncover novel relationships between life and sound.

Various nuclear functional complexes contain cytoskeletal proteins as regulatory subunits; for example, nuclear actin participates in transcriptional complexes, and actin-related proteins are integral to chromatin remodeling complexes. Nuclear complexes such as these are involved in both basal and adaptive nuclear functions. In addition to nuclear import via classical nuclear transport pathways or passive diffusion, some large cytoskeletal proteins spontaneously migrate into the nucleus in a karyopherin-independent manner. The balance of nucleocytoplasmic distribution of such proteins can be altered by several factors, such as import versus export, or capture and release by complexes. The resulting accumulation or depletion of the nuclear populations thereby enhances or attenuates their nuclear functions. We propose that such molecular dynamics constitute a form of cytoskeleton-modulated regulation of nuclear functions which is mediated by the translocation of cytoskeletal components in and out of the nucleus.

To uncover the molecular composition and dynamics of the functional scaffold for the nucleus, three fractions of biochemically-stable nuclear protein complexes were extracted and used as immunogens to produce a variety of monoclonal antibodies. Many helix-based cytoskeletal proteins were identified as antigens, suggesting their dynamic contribution to nuclear architecture and function. Interestingly, sets of antibodies distinguished distinct subcellular localization of a single isoform of certain cytoskeletal proteins; distinct molecular forms of keratin and actinin were found in the nucleus. Their nuclear shuttling properties were verified by the apparent nuclear accumulations under inhibition of CRM1-dependent nuclear export. Nuclear keratins do not take an obvious filamentous structure, as was revealed by non-filamentous cytoplasmic keratin-specific monoclonal antibody. These results suggest the distinct roles of the helix-based cytoskeletal proteins in the nucleus.