3D-printing of cementitious materials is an innovative construction approach with which building elements can be constructed without the use of formwork. Despite potential benefits in the construction industry, it introduces various engineering challenges from the material point of view. This paper reviews the properties of extrusion-based 3D-printed cementitious materials in both fresh and hardened states. Four main properties of fresh-state printing materials are addressed: flowability, extrudability, buildability, and open time, along with hardened properties, including density, compressive strength, flexural strength, tensile bond strength, shrinkage, and cracking. Experimental testing and effective factors of each property are covered, and a mix design procedure is proposed. The main objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the recent development in 3D-printing of cementitious materials and to identify the research gaps that need further investigation.
Alkali activated fly ash (AAFA) is an alternative concrete binder that could serve as a substitute for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) for certain engineering applications. While this material has significant environmental and durability benefits, its potential volume instability and propensity to shrinkage and cracking could be of great concern. The subject of the present paper is evaluating the magnitude of drying shrinkage in AAFA binders of different compositions and at various ambient relative humidities (RH). Four AAFA paste mixtures were prepared using class F fly ash and liquid sodium silicate activators with various alkalinity (pH) and silicate modulus (n=(SiO2/Na2O)molar). The results were also compared with an OPC paste with a similar initial porosity. All AAFA pastes were steam cured at 60°C for 24 hours, followed by 6 days of moist curing at 23 o C, while the OPC specimens were moist cured at 23 o C for 7 days. The shrinkage specimens were dried under nitrogen purge at different relative humidities. The results show that activators with intermediate pH and modulus led to AAFA binders with higher compressive strength, denser pore structure, and larger drying shrinkage. Regardless of the activating solution, AAFA pastes dried quicker, and reached equilibrium faster than OPC paste. AAFA pastes also lost more moisture, but generally exhibited a lower drying shrinkage than OPC at similar RH. Steam curing of AAFA for a longer period (7-day vs. 1 day) stabilized the structure of AAFA binders and lowered the drying shrinkage.
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