Hypertension remains a major societal problem affecting 76 million, or approximately one third, of US adults. While more prevalent in the older population, an increasing incidence in the younger population, including athletes, is being observed. Active individuals, like the young and athletes, are viewed as free of diseases such as hypertension. However, the increased prevalence of traditional risk factors in the young, including obesity, diabetes mellitus, and renal disease, increase the risk of developing hypertension in younger adults. Psychosocial factors may also be contributing factors to the increasing incidence of hypertension in the younger population. Increased left ventricular wall thickness and mass are increasingly found in young adults on routine echocardiograms and predict future cardiovascular events. This increasing incidence of hypertension in the young calls for early surveillance and prompt treatment to prevent future cardiac events. In this review we present the current epidemiological data, potential mechanisms, clinical implications, and treatment of hypertension in young patients and athletes.
Introduction
African Americans (AAs) have the highest risk of developing heart failure (HF) among all ethnicities in the United States and are associated with higher rates of readmissions and mortality. This study aims to determine the prevalence and relationship of common psychiatric conditions to outcomes of patients hospitalized with HF.
Hypothesis
Psychiatric conditions lead to worse outcomes in HF patients.
Methods
This single‐center retrospective study enrolled 611 AA patients admitted to an urban teaching community hospital for HF from 2010 to 2013. Patient demographics, clinical variables, and history of psychiatric disorders were obtained. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to assess impact of psychiatric disorders on readmission rates and mortality.
Results
The mean age was 66 ± 15 years; 53% were men. Median follow‐up time from index admission for HF was 3.2 years. Ninety‐seven patients had a psychiatric condition: 46 had depression, 11 had bipolar mood disorder (BMD), and 40 had schizophrenia. After adjustment of known risk factors and clinical metrics, our study showed that AA HF patients with a psychiatric illness were 3.84× more likely to be admitted within 30 days for HF, compared with those without (P < 0.001). Individually, adjusted Cox multivariable logistic regression analysis also showed that, for 30‐day readmission, schizophrenia had a hazard ratio (HR) of 4.92 (P < 0.001); BMD, an HR of 3.44 (P = 0.02); and depression, an HR 3.15 (P = 0.001). No associations were found with mortality.
Conclusions
Psychiatric conditions of schizophrenia, BMD, and depression were significantly associated with a higher 30‐day and overall readmission rate for HF among AA patients.
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